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| place of burial = [[Imam Ali Mosque]], [[Najaf]], [[Iraq]] or the Blue Mosque, in [[Mazari Sharif]], [[Afghanistan]] (disputed) |
| place of burial = [[Imam Ali Mosque]], [[Najaf]], [[Iraq]] or the Blue Mosque, in [[Mazari Sharif]], [[Afghanistan]] (disputed) |
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'''Ali ibn Abu Talib''' ({{lang-ar-at|a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib}}, 13<sup>th</sub> [[Rajab]], 24 [[Islamic calendar#Numbering the years|BH]] – 21<sup>st</sub> [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]], 40 AH; approximately, [[March 17]] [[599]] or 600<ref>Ahmed (2005), p.234</ref> – [[January 27]] [[661]]<ref name="Iranica"/>) was the cousin, son-in-law and one of the ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'', people of the house, of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], reigning over the [[Rashidun empire]] from 656 to 661. [[Sunni]] Muslims consider Ali as the fourth and final [[Rashidun]] (Rightly Guided [[Caliph]]). |
'''Ali ibn Abu Talib''' ({{lang-ar-at|a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib}}, 13<sup>th</sub> [[Rajab]], 24 [[Islamic calendar#Numbering the years|BH]] – 21<sup>st</sub> [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]], 40 AH; approximately, [[March 17]] [[599]] or 600<ref>Ahmed (2005), p.234</ref> – [[January 27]] [[661]]<ref name="Iranica"/>) was the cousin, son-in-law and one of the ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'', people of the house, of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], reigning over the [[Rashidun empire]] from 656 to 661. [[Sunni]] Muslims consider Ali as the fourth and final [[Rashidun]] (Rightly Guided [[Caliph]]). |
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His father was [[Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib]] and his mother was [[Fatima bint Asad]]<ref name="Britannica"/> but he was raised in the household of Muhammad, who himself was raised by Abu Talib. When Muhammad reported receiving a [[Wahy|divine revelation]], Ali was among the first to accept his message, dedicating his life to the cause of [[Islam]].<ref name="Tabatabae191"/><ref>Ashraf, (2005) p.14</ref><ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1 | last = Diana | first = Steigerwald | title=Ali ibn Abi Talib | publisher = MacMillan | id = ISBN 0028656040}}</ref> |
His father was [[Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib]] and his mother was [[Fatima bint Asad]]<ref name="Britannica"/> but he was raised in the household of Muhammad, who himself was raised by Abu Talib. When Muhammad reported receiving a [[Wahy|divine revelation]], Ali was among the first to accept his message, dedicating his life to the cause of [[Islam]].<ref name="Tabatabae191"/><ref>Ashraf, (2005) p.14</ref><ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1 | last = Diana | first = Steigerwald | title=Ali ibn Abi Talib | publisher = MacMillan | id = ISBN 0028656040}}</ref> |
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* Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p654 |
* Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p654 |
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* Madelung, 1997, pp. 15 and 16 |
* Madelung, 1997, pp. 15 and 16 |
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</ref> [[Allameh Tabatabaei]] explains in ''[[Tafsir al-Mizan]]'' that the word "Our selves" in this verse <ref>{{cite quran|3|61|style = ref}}</ref> refers to Muhammad and Ali. Then he narrates [[Imam Ali al-Rida]], eighth [[Twelve Imams|Shia Imam]], in discussion with [[Al-Ma'mun]], [[Abbasid]] [[caliph]], referred to this verse to prove the superiority of Muhammad's progeny over the rest of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]], and considered it as the proof for Ali's right for caliphate due to Allah made Ali like the self of Muhammad.<ref>[http://www.almizan.org/Tafseer/Volume6/6Imran2.asp Tabatabaei, Tafsir al-Mizan, v.6, Al Imran, verses 61-63] </ref> |
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====Ghadir Khumm==== |
====Ghadir Khumm==== |
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{{Main|Hadith of the pond of Khumm|Hadith of the two weighty things}} |
{{Main|Hadith of the pond of Khumm|Hadith of the two weighty things}} |
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As Muhammad was returning from [[The Farewell Pilgrimage|his last pilgrimage]] in 632, he made statements about Ali |
As Muhammad was returning from [[The Farewell Pilgrimage|his last pilgrimage]] in 632, he made statements about Ali.<ref name="Britannica"/> He halted the caravan at [[Ghadir Khumm]], gathered the returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to address them<ref>* Dakake (2008), pp.34 and 39</ref>: |
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<blockquote> "O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the [[Ahl al-Bayt|members of my household]] I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.<ref>See: |
<blockquote> "O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the [[Ahl al-Bayt|members of my household]] I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.<ref>See: |
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* Dakake (2008), pp.39 and 40 |
* Dakake (2008), pp.39 and 40 |
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* Sahih Muslim [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/031.smt.html#031.5920 031.5920] The Book Pertaining to the Merits of the Companions (Allah Be Pleased With Them) of the Holy Prophet (May Peace Be Upon Him) (Kitab Al-Fada'il Al-Sahabah)</ref>." </blockquote> |
* Sahih Muslim [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/031.smt.html#031.5920 031.5920] The Book Pertaining to the Merits of the Companions (Allah Be Pleased With Them) of the Holy Prophet (May Peace Be Upon Him) (Kitab Al-Fada'il Al-Sahabah)</ref>." </blockquote> |
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This quote is confirmed by both Shi’a and Sunni, but they interpret the quote differently.<ref>Dakake (2008), pp.39 and 40</ref> |
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Some Sunni and Shi'a sources report that then he called ''Ali ibn Abi Talib'' to his sides, took his hand and raised it up declaring<ref>Dakake (2008), p. 34, 36 and 37</ref> |
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<blockquote>"For whoever I am a [[Mawla]] of, then Ali is his Mawla<ref>See: |
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* Dakake (2008), pp. 34 and 35 |
* Dakake (2008), pp. 34 and 35 |
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* Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319 |
* Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319 |
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"من كنت مولاه فهذا علي مولاه"</ref>." |
"من كنت مولاه فهذا علي مولاه"</ref>." |
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</blockquote> |
</blockquote> |
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Many [[Sufism|Sufis]] also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the [[wali]] par excellence.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref>Dakake (2008), pp.33-35 |
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The Shia's regard these statements as constituting the investiture of Ali as the [[succession to Muhammad|successor of Muhammad]] and as the first [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imam]]; by contrast, the Sunnis take them only as an expression of Muhammad's closeness to Ali and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death. |
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<ref>See: |
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* Dakake (2008), pp.43-48 |
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* Tabatabae (1979), page 40</ref> Many [[Sufism|Sufis]] also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the [[wali]] par excellence.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref>Dakake (2008), pp.33-35 |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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===Succession to Muhammad=== |
===Succession to Muhammad=== |
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After uniting the [[Tribes of Arabia|Arabian tribes]] into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]].<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.31 and 32</ref>While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at [[Saqifah]], the closest companion of Muhammad named [[Abu Bakr]] was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. |
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{{Succession to Muhammad}}{{Shia Islam}} |
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{{seealso|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifah|Rashidun}} |
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After uniting the [[Tribes of Arabia|Arabian tribes]] into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]].<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.31 and 32</ref>While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at [[Saqifah]], the closest companion of Muhammad named [[Abu Bakr]] was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr disputed by some of the muslims, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself. |
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<ref>See: |
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* Holt (1970), p.57 |
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* Madelung (1996), pp.26-27, 30-43 and 356-360 |
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</ref><ref name="Islam"/> |
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According to shia belief, Abu Bakr following his election to the caliphate, headed to [[Umar at Fatimah's house|Fatimah's house]] to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr. <ref> Madelung, 1997, p. 43</ref> There isn't consensus among the shia sources about what happened next. Some sources say upon seeing them, Ali came out with his sword drawn but was disarmed by Umar and their companions. [[Fatimah]], in support of her husband, started a commotion and threatened to "uncover her hair", at which Abu Bakr relented and withdrew.<ref name=EoI>"Fatima", Encyclopedia of Islam. Brill Online.</ref> Ali is reported to have repeatedly said that had there been forty men with him he would have resisted.<ref> Madelung, 1997, p. 43</ref> When Abu Bakr's selection to the caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife.<ref name="Iranica"/> |
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This contentious issue led Muslims to later split into two groups, Sunni and Shi'a. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, [[Abu Bakr]] was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as [[Rashidun|Muhammad's rightful successors]]. Shi'as believe that Muhammad explicitly named his successor Ali at [[Ghadir Khumm]] and Muslim leadership belonged to him who had been determined by [[Nasb|divine order]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last= |first= | authorlink= | title=Sunnite |year=| encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-04-11|location=|publisher= Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070378/Sunnite}}</ref><ref name="Islam"/> |
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The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: [[Umar]] and [[Uthman Ibn Affan]]. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims.<ref>Sahih Bukhari [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/057.sbt.html#005.057.050 5.57.50]</ref> Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imam'ate without this fighting .<ref>Chirri (1982)</ref> |
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Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for [[caliphate]] based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (''[[bay'ah]]'') as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.<ref>See: |
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* Madelung (1996), pp.141 and 270 |
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* Ashraf (2005), pp. 99 and 100 |
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</ref><ref name="Islam"/> |
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Muslims assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, [[Abu Bakr]] was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. Mainstream Muslims recognize the first four caliphs as [[Rashidun|Muhammad's rightful successors]]. They maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, (as Shias claim) then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. |
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===Inheritance=== |
===Inheritance=== |
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Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of [[Uthman Ibn Affan]], the third caliph in 656. During these years, Ali neither took part in any battle or [[Muslim conquests|conquest]].<ref name="Iranica"/> nor did he assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after the death of his wife, [[Fatima Zahra]]. He used his time to serve his family and worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and gardens near Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known today as ''[[Abar Ali]]'' ("Ali's wells").<ref>[http://www.eurohajjmission.org/Intro/History.htm History of Mecca, Medina and all other Ziyarats]</ref> He also made gardens for his family and descendants. |
Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of [[Uthman Ibn Affan]], the third caliph in 656. During these years, Ali neither took part in any battle or [[Muslim conquests|conquest]].<ref name="Iranica"/> nor did he assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after the death of his wife, [[Fatima Zahra]]. He used his time to serve his family and worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and gardens near Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known today as ''[[Abar Ali]]'' ("Ali's wells").<ref>[http://www.eurohajjmission.org/Intro/History.htm History of Mecca, Medina and all other Ziyarats]</ref> He also made gardens for his family and descendants. |
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Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, ''[[mus'haf]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last = Nasr |first = Seyyed Hossein | authorlink = Seyyed Hossein Nasr | title = Qur'an |year = 2007| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica Online | accessdate = 2007-11-04|location = |publisher = |http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran}}</ref> six months after the death of Muhammad. The volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this ''mus'haf'' differed from that which was gathered later during the [[Uthman Ibn Affan|Uthman]]ic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against [[Origin and development of the Qur'an |
Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, ''[[mus'haf]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last = Nasr |first = Seyyed Hossein | authorlink = Seyyed Hossein Nasr | title = Qur'an |year = 2007| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica Online | accessdate = 2007-11-04|location = |publisher = |http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran}}</ref> six months after the death of Muhammad. The volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this ''mus'haf'' differed from that which was gathered later during the [[Uthman Ibn Affan|Uthman]]ic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against [[Origin and development of the Qur'an. |
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*Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in San'a |
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*The Qur'an as Text'', ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 90-04-10344-9</ref> This book is inherited by his descendant, i.e. [[Twelve Imams|Shia Imams]]. |
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===Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs=== |
===Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs=== |
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*{{muslim|19|4352}} |
*{{muslim|19|4352}} |
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*[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]], vol. 3, p.208; [[Ibn Qutaybah]], vol. 1, p.29; [http://islamichistory.wordpress.com/files/2006/12/the-succession-to-muhammad-web-edition.ppt quoted in Ayoub, 2003, 18] |
*[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]], vol. 3, p.208; [[Ibn Qutaybah]], vol. 1, p.29; [http://islamichistory.wordpress.com/files/2006/12/the-succession-to-muhammad-web-edition.ppt quoted in Ayoub, 2003, 18] |
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*[[Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi|Rizvi, Sa'id Akhtar]], Imamate: The Vicegerency of the Prophet by , quoting [[Ibn Qutaybah]] [http://www.al-islam.org/imamate/3.htm 18. SUNNI VIEWS ON THE CALIPHATE] |
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*[http://www.al-islam.org/Organizations/Aalimnetwork/msg00166.html Shi'a encyclopedia] quoting from [[Ibn Qutaybah]], [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]], [[Massudi]], [[Ibn Abu al-Hadid]] |
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*[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]] by [[Edward Gibbon]], section [http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/chap50.htm Reign of Abubeker; A.D. 632, June 7.]</ref> |
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He pledged allegiance to the second caliph [[Umar ibn Khattab]] and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set [[Hijra]] as the beginning of the [[Islamic calendar]]. Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones. <ref>See |
He pledged allegiance to the second caliph [[Umar ibn Khattab]] and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set [[Hijra]] as the beginning of the [[Islamic calendar]]. Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones. <ref>See |
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<ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 107 and 134</ref> |
<ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 107 and 134</ref> |
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<ref name="Britannica"/> |
<ref name="Britannica"/> |
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<!-- Later Ali said he had neither helped him nor tried to kill him. According to his viewpoint Uthman appropriated wealth and did it badly. Rebels protested against it and committed excess therein. |
<!-- Later Ali said he had neither helped him nor tried to kill him. According to his viewpoint Uthman appropriated wealth and did it badly. Rebels protested against it and committed excess therein. |
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*[[Nahj al-Balagha]] [http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/sermons.php Sermon 30] </ref>--> |
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There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and [[Uthman Ibn Affan|Uthman]]. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with Uthman on the question of religious law. He insisted that [[Hudud|religious punishment]] had to done in several cases such as [[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar]] and [[Walid ibn Uqba]]. In 650 during [[Hajj|pilgrimage]], he confronted Uthman with reproaches for his change of the prayer ritual. When Uthman declared that he would take whatever he needed from the [[fey']], Ali exclaimed that in that case the caliph would e prevented by force. Ali endeavored to protect companions from maltreatment by the caliph such as [[Ibn Mas'ud]]. <ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 109 and 110</ref> Therefore, some historians consider Ali as one the leading members of Uthman's opposition, if not the main one. Because he could clearly be expected to be the prime beneficiary of the overthrow of Uthman. But [[Madelung]] rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the [[Quraysh]]'s support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions. |
There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and [[Uthman Ibn Affan|Uthman]]. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with Uthman on the question of religious law. He insisted that [[Hudud|religious punishment]] had to done in several cases such as [[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar]] and [[Walid ibn Uqba]]. In 650 during [[Hajj|pilgrimage]], he confronted Uthman with reproaches for his change of the prayer ritual. When Uthman declared that he would take whatever he needed from the [[fey']], Ali exclaimed that in that case the caliph would e prevented by force. Ali endeavored to protect companions from maltreatment by the caliph such as [[Ibn Mas'ud]]. <ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 109 and 110</ref> Therefore, some historians consider Ali as one the leading members of Uthman's opposition, if not the main one. Because he could clearly be expected to be the prime beneficiary of the overthrow of Uthman. But [[Madelung]] rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the [[Quraysh]]'s support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions. |
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Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties, the rebels dividing into several groups comprising the ''[[Muhajirun]]'', ''[[Ansar]]'', [[Egypt]]ians, [[Kufa]]ns and [[Bassorah|Basntes]]. There were three candidates Ali, [[Talhah]] and [[Al-Zubayr]]. First they referred to Ali and asked him to accept the caliphate. Some of Muhammad's [[Sahaba|companions]] tried to persuade him to accept the office,<ref name="Sermon 3"> |
Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties, the rebels dividing into several groups comprising the ''[[Muhajirun]]'', ''[[Ansar]]'', [[Egypt]]ians, [[Kufa]]ns and [[Bassorah|Basntes]]. There were three candidates Ali, [[Talhah]] and [[Al-Zubayr]]. First they referred to Ali and asked him to accept the caliphate. Some of Muhammad's [[Sahaba|companions]] tried to persuade him to accept the office,<ref name="Sermon 3"> |
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* [[Nahj Al-Balagha]] [http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/SermonDetail.php?Sermon=3 Nahj Al-Balagha Sermon 3] |
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* For Isnad of this sermon and the name of the names of scholars who narrates it see [http://books.google.com/books?id=zQjKHj0vA1IC&pg=PA112&dq=Ali+axis++hand-mill&ei=GEPmR5jmDZG0yQSY9InCAg&sig=LitcBMh39oXValrXDMsMwnFTXKA#PPA108,M1 Nahjul Balagha, Mohammad Askari Jafery (1984), pp. 108-112] </ref><ref>Ashraf (2005), p. 119</ref><ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 141-143</ref> but he refused and suggested to be a counselor not a chief.<ref>Hamidullah (1988), p.126</ref> |
* For Isnad of this sermon and the name of the names of scholars who narrates it see [http://books.google.com/books?id=zQjKHj0vA1IC&pg=PA112&dq=Ali+axis++hand-mill&ei=GEPmR5jmDZG0yQSY9InCAg&sig=LitcBMh39oXValrXDMsMwnFTXKA#PPA108,M1 Nahjul Balagha, Mohammad Askari Jafery (1984), pp. 108-112] </ref><ref>Ashraf (2005), p. 119</ref><ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 141-143</ref> but he refused and suggested to be a counselor not a chief.<ref>Hamidullah (1988), p.126</ref> |
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According to [[Abu Mekhnaf]]'s narration, Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge, but other narrations claim they did not do so or someone forced them. In addition, Talhah and al-Zubayr later claimed they did so reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refused these claims and stated that they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. [[Wilferd Madelung]] believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged publicly in the mosque.<ref>Ashraf (2005), pp. 119-120</ref><ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 141-145</ref><ref name="firstfourcaliphs"/> |
According to [[Abu Mekhnaf]]'s narration, Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge, but other narrations claim they did not do so or someone forced them. In addition, Talhah and al-Zubayr later claimed they did so reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refused these claims and stated that they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. [[Wilferd Madelung]] believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged publicly in the mosque.<ref>Ashraf (2005), pp. 119-120</ref><ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 141-145</ref><ref name="firstfourcaliphs"/> |
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While the overwhelming majority of people who lived in Medina as well as rebels gave their pledge, some major figures did not do so. [[Umayyad]]s, kins of Uthman, escaped to the [[Levant]] or remained in their houses and later refused Ali's legitimacy. [[Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas]] was absent and [[Abdullah ibn Umar]] abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that they wouldn't act against him.<ref>Ashraf (2005), pp. 119-120</ref><ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 141-145</ref> Another prominent figure in [[Mecca]] at that time, and who later opposed Ali, was Muhammad's widow [[A'isha]]. |
While the overwhelming majority of people who lived in Medina as well as rebels gave their pledge, some major figures did not do so. [[Umayyad]]s, kins of Uthman, escaped to the [[Levant]] or remained in their houses and later refused Ali's legitimacy. [[Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas]] was absent and [[Abdullah ibn Umar]] abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that they wouldn't act against him.<ref>Ashraf (2005), pp. 119-120</ref><ref>Madelung (1997), pp. 141-145</ref> Another prominent figure in [[Mecca]] at that time, and who later opposed Ali, was Muhammad's widow [[A'isha]]. However the dispute with [[Aisha]] was later settled. |
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===Reign as Caliph=== |
===Reign as Caliph=== |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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<!-- Ali believed that people and governors have rights over each other and God created these rights so as to equate with one another. The greatest of these rights that Allah has made obligatory is the right of the ruler over the ruled and the right of the ruled over the ruler. If the ruled fulfill the rights of the ruler and the ruler fulfills their rights, then right attains the position of honor among them, the ways of religion become established, signs of justice become fixed and the [[sunnah]] gains currency. He wrote directions for his officials which clearly show what form of regime he wanted to introduce. It was not to be a regime whose officers had an upper hand and were fattened on public money. It was to be a regime where the governed and the tax-payers were at premium. It was their convenience for which the State was to function. It was a welfare-state working solely for the welfare of the people living under its rule, a regime where the rich cannot get richer while the poor are made poorer; a regime where canons of religion hold the balance between the governed and the ruler. He asked people not to speak with him as they spoke with cruel governors and be honest with him. |
<!-- Ali believed that people and governors have rights over each other and God created these rights so as to equate with one another. The greatest of these rights that Allah has made obligatory is the right of the ruler over the ruled and the right of the ruled over the ruler. If the ruled fulfill the rights of the ruler and the ruler fulfills their rights, then right attains the position of honor among them, the ways of religion become established, signs of justice become fixed and the [[sunnah]] gains currency. He wrote directions for his officials which clearly show what form of regime he wanted to introduce. It was not to be a regime whose officers had an upper hand and were fattened on public money. It was to be a regime where the governed and the tax-payers were at premium. It was their convenience for which the State was to function. It was a welfare-state working solely for the welfare of the people living under its rule, a regime where the rich cannot get richer while the poor are made poorer; a regime where canons of religion hold the balance between the governed and the ruler. He asked people not to speak with him as they spoke with cruel governors and be honest with him. |
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[http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/letters.php Letters 25, 26, 27, 40, 41, 43, ]</ref> |
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Ali had decisive beliefs that he shouldn't start a war with other Muslims but when the enemy started it his army wouldn't retreat unless they wanted to attack again. He ordered his soldiers not to kill who would become injured, or not be able to defend himself, or escape from the battlefield and injuries and wanted his warriors not to injure women. |
Ali had decisive beliefs that he shouldn't start a war with other Muslims but when the enemy started it his army wouldn't retreat unless they wanted to attack again. He ordered his soldiers not to kill who would become injured, or not be able to defend himself, or escape from the battlefield and injuries and wanted his warriors not to injure women. |
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--> |
--> |
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{{Seealso|First Fitna}} |
{{Seealso|First Fitna}} |
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[[Image:Battle of Siffin1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Battle of Siffin]], illustration from a 19th century manuscript by [[Muhammad Rafi Bazil]]. There are [[Persian language|Persian]] poems on the above and bottom of the picture.]] |
[[Image:Battle of Siffin1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Battle of Siffin]], illustration from a 19th century manuscript by [[Muhammad Rafi Bazil]]. There are [[Persian language|Persian]] poems on the above and bottom of the picture.]] |
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The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of [[Uthman]], continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the ''[[Fitna (word)|Fitna]]'') is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic [[ummah]] (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muhammad's wife, [[Aisha]] bint Abu Bakr. This group, |
The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of [[Uthman]], continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the ''[[Fitna (word)|Fitna]]'') is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic [[ummah]] (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muhammad's wife, [[Aisha]] bint Abu Bakr. This group, then moved to [[Basra]] with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people in what is now Iraq. The rebels occupied Basra, killing many people. They refused Ali's offer of obedience and pledge of allegiance until Uthman's killers were not punished. The two sides met at the [[Battle of Bassorah]] (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.<ref>See: |
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* Lapidus (2002), p.47 |
* Lapidus (2002), p.47 |
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* Holt (1970), p.70 - 72 |
* Holt (1970), p.70 - 72 |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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Ali appointed [[Ibn Abbas]] governor of Basra and moved his capital to [[Kufa]]. Later he was challenged by [[Muawiyah I]], the governor of [[Levant]] and the cousin of [[Uthman]], who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at [[Siffin]] for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the [[Battle of Siffin]] in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as ''laylat al-harir'' (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when [[Amr ibn al-Aas]] advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist ''[[mus'haf]]'' (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army. |
Ali appointed [[Ibn Abbas]] governor of Basra and moved his capital to [[Kufa]]. Later he was challenged by [[Muawiyah I]], the governor of [[Levant]] and the cousin of [[Uthman]], who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at [[Siffin]] for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the [[Battle of Siffin]] in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as ''laylat al-harir'' (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when [[Amr ibn al-Aas]] advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist ''[[mus'haf]]'' (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.> |
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* Lapidus (2002), p. 47; |
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* Holt (1970), p. 70 - 72; |
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* Tabatabaei (1979), p. 53 - 54;</ref> Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.<ref name="Islam"/> |
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The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the [[Kufah|Kufans]] caused a further split in Ali's army. [[Ash'ath ibn Qays]] and some others rejected Ali's nominees, [[`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas]] and [[Malik al-Ashtar]], and insisted on [[Abu Musa Ash'ari]], who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as [[Kharijites]] ([[schisma]]tics), opposed this decision and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the [[Battle of Nahrawan]]. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref>See: |
The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the [[Kufah|Kufans]] caused a further split in Ali's army. [[Ash'ath ibn Qays]] and some others rejected Ali's nominees, [[`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas]] and [[Malik al-Ashtar]], and insisted on [[Abu Musa Ash'ari]], who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as [[Kharijites]] ([[schisma]]tics), opposed this decision and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the [[Battle of Nahrawan]]. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref>See: |
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<!-- In these two days he dictated his will to his household "My advice to you is that you should not consider anyone as a co-worker of the Lord, be firm in your belief that there is One and only One Allah. Do not waste the knowledge given to you by the Muhammad and do not give up and destroy his [[Sunnah]] [traditions]. Keep these two pillars of Islam [monotheism and Sunnah of the Muhammad] aloft. If you act according to my advice then you cannot be blamed for damaging or destroying the religion." |
<!-- In these two days he dictated his will to his household "My advice to you is that you should not consider anyone as a co-worker of the Lord, be firm in your belief that there is One and only One Allah. Do not waste the knowledge given to you by the Muhammad and do not give up and destroy his [[Sunnah]] [traditions]. Keep these two pillars of Islam [monotheism and Sunnah of the Muhammad] aloft. If you act according to my advice then you cannot be blamed for damaging or destroying the religion." |
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<ref>[[Nahj Al-Balagha]] [http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/LetterDetail.php?Letter=23 Letter 23]</ref>--> |
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===Burial=== |
===Burial=== |
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[[Image:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rawze-e-Sharif]], the Blue Mosque, in [[Mazari Sharif]], [[Afghanistan]] - Where a minority of Muslims believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is buried]] |
[[Image:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rawze-e-Sharif]], the Blue Mosque, in [[Mazari Sharif]], [[Afghanistan]] - Where a minority of Muslims believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is buried]] |
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According to [[Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid]], Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the [[Abbasid]] caliphate by [[Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq]], his descendant |
According to [[Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid]], Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the [[Abbasid]] caliphate by [[Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq]], his descendant .<ref>Al-Mufid (1986)</ref> Some muslims accept that Ali is buried at the [[Holiest sites in Islam#Tomb of Imam Ali, Najaf|Tomb of Imam Ali]] in the [[Imam Ali Mosque]] at what is now the city of [[Najaf]], which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.<ref name="Imam Ali Ibn Abu Talib">{{cite book| last = Redha| first = Mohammad| coauthors = Mohammad Agha| title = Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume)| publisher = Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah| date = 1999| id = ISBN 2-7451-2532-X}}</ref><ref name="Medieval"/> |
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However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of [[Mazar-E-Sharif]] at the famous Blue Mosque or [[Rawze-e-Sharif]].<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/afghanistan/balkh.html Balkh and Mazar-e-Sharif]</ref> |
However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of [[Mazar-E-Sharif]] at the famous Blue Mosque or [[Rawze-e-Sharif]].<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/afghanistan/balkh.html Balkh and Mazar-e-Sharif]</ref> |
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{{seealso|Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali}} |
{{seealso|Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali}} |
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After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'' of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.<ref>Madlong (1997), pp. 313 - 314</ref> |
After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'' of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.<ref>Madlong (1997), pp. 313 - 314</ref> |
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At this time, Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's |
At this time, Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's people. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the [[Salat#Prayer_in_congregation|congregational prayers]] remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]]. |
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Muawiyah also established the [[Umayyad]] caliphate which was a centralized monarchy. |
Muawiyah also established the [[Umayyad]] caliphate which was a centralized monarchy. |
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<ref> |
<ref> |
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{{Wikiquote}} |
{{Wikiquote}} |
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Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Numerous range of disciplines from [[Kalam|theology]] and [[Tafsir|exegesis]] to [[Calligraphy#Islamic_calligraphy|calligraphy]] and [[numerology]], from [[Shariah|law]] and [[Sufism|mysticism]] to [[Arabic grammar]] and [[Rhetoric]] regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali. <ref name="Medieval">{{cite encyclopedia|last=ShahKazemi |first=Reza | authorlink= | title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |year=2006 | encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | accessdate=2008-04-02 |location= |publisher= Taylor & Francis |id = ISBN 0415966914 }}, Pages 36 and 37 </ref> |
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Numerous range of disciplines from [[Kalam|theology]] and [[Tafsir|exegesis]] to [[Calligraphy#Islamic_calligraphy|calligraphy]] and [[numerology]], from [[Shariah|law]] and [[Sufism|mysticism]] to [[Arabic grammar]] and [[Rhetoric]] regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali. <ref name="Medieval">{{cite encyclopedia|last=ShahKazemi |first=Reza | authorlink= | title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |year=2006 | encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | accessdate=2008-04-02 |location= |publisher= Taylor & Francis |id = ISBN 0415966914 }}, Pages 36 and 37 </ref> |
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Sufis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..."<ref name="Medieval"/><ref> |
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Shia and Sufis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..."<ref name="Medieval"/><ref> |
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See: |
See: |
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*«حدیث متواتر عن النبی نقله العامة و الخاصة» |
*«حدیث متواتر عن النبی نقله العامة و الخاصة» |
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In later [[Islamic philosophy]], especially in the teachings of [[Mulla Sadra]] and his followers, like [[Allameh Tabatabaei]], Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of [[Transcendent Theosophy|Sadra's school]] regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.<ref name="Britannica"/> According to Henry Corbin, the ''Nahj al-Balagha'' may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] which entered the literary and [[Philosophy|philosophical language]] independently of the translation into Arabic of [[Greek language|Greek]] texts.<ref>Corbin (1993), p. 35</ref> |
In later [[Islamic philosophy]], especially in the teachings of [[Mulla Sadra]] and his followers, like [[Allameh Tabatabaei]], Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of [[Transcendent Theosophy|Sadra's school]] regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.<ref name="Britannica"/> According to Henry Corbin, the ''Nahj al-Balagha'' may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] which entered the literary and [[Philosophy|philosophical language]] independently of the translation into Arabic of [[Greek language|Greek]] texts.<ref>Corbin (1993), p. 35</ref> |
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Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression.<ref name="firstfourcaliphs"/> Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as [['Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri]] pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did [[al-Jahiz]] in the following century. |
Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression.<ref name="firstfourcaliphs"/> Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as [['Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri]] pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did [[al-Jahiz]] in the following century. |
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Even workers in the [[Divan]] of [[Umayyad]] recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.<ref>"حفظت سبعين خطبة من خطب الاصلع ففاضت ثم فاضت ) ويعني بالاصلع أمير المؤمنين عليا عليه السلام"[http://www.rafed.net/books/turathona/5/ts2.html مقدمة في مصادر نهج البلاغة] </ref> Of course, ''Peak of Eloquence'' (''[[Nahj al-Balagha]]'') is an extract of Ali's quotations from a literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in the preface. While there are many other quotations, prayers ([[Du'a]]s), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.<ref>See: |
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* [http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/nahjulbalaga/sources.htm Sources of Nahj Al-Balagha] |
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* [http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/nahjulbalaga/bibg.htm Other sources of Ali's quotations] |
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</ref> |
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In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as ''[[jafr]]'',Islamic [[numerology]], the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the [[Arabic alphabet]], are said to have been established by Ali.<ref name="Britannica"/> |
In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as ''[[jafr]]'',Islamic [[numerology]], the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the [[Arabic alphabet]], are said to have been established by Ali.<ref name="Britannica"/> |
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His daughter Zaynab — who was in Karbala — was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last= |first= | | title=Zaynab Bint ʿAlĪ |year=2004 | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | accessdate=2008-04-10 |location=|publisher= Gale Group |url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/zaynab-bint-al-eorl-14/}}</ref> |
His daughter Zaynab — who was in Karbala — was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last= |first= | | title=Zaynab Bint ʿAlĪ |year=2004 | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | accessdate=2008-04-10 |location=|publisher= Gale Group |url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/zaynab-bint-al-eorl-14/}}</ref> |
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Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as ''[[sharif]]s'', ''sayeds'' or ''[[sayyid]]s''. These are honorific titles in Arabic, ''sharif'' meaning 'noble' and ''sayed'' or ''sayyid'' meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by |
Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as ''[[sharif]]s'', ''sayeds'' or ''[[sayyid]]s''. These are honorific titles in Arabic, ''sharif'' meaning 'noble' and ''sayed'' or ''sayyid'' meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by all muslims. |
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==Views== |
==Views== |
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Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost [[Ulema]] (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names. |
Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost [[Ulema]] (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names. |
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Mainstream Muslims regard Ali as one of the ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'' and the last of the Rashidun caliphs and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], and [[Uthman Ibn Affan]].<ref name="firstfourcaliphs"/> |
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==== Sunni ==== |
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{{Mainarticle|Sunni view of Ali}} |
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The [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]] regard Ali as one of the ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'' and the last of the Rashidun caliphs and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], and [[Uthman Ibn Affan]].<ref name="firstfourcaliphs"/> |
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==== Shia ==== |
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{{Mainarticle|Shi'a view of Ali}} |
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The Shias regards Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad. According to them, Muhammad in his life time suggested on various occasions, that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his demise like [[Hadith of the pond of Khumm]], [[Hadith of the two weighty things]], [[Hadith of the pen and paper]], [[Hadith of the invitation of the close families]], [[Hadith of the Twelve Successors]] and so on. |
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According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only rules over the community in justice but also interprets the [[Sharia]] Law and its [[Esoteric interpretation of the Qur'an|esoteric meaning]]. Hence he was free from error and sin ([[Infallible#Islamic Beliefs|infallible]]) and he was appointed by God by divine decree ([[nass]]) through Muhammad.<ref> Nasr, Shi'ite Islam, preface, p. 10</ref> Ali is known as "perfect man" (''[[al-insan al-kamil]]'') similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.<ref>[http://www.irib.ir/occasions/ImamAli/en/book/chapter_1.htm Motahhari, Perfect man, Chapter 1]</ref> |
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Shia pilgrims usually go to [[Mashad Ali]] in [[Najaf]] for [[Ziyarat]], pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"<ref>Trust, p. 695</ref> or other ''[[Ziyaratnames]]''.<ref>Trust, p. 681</ref> Under the [[Safavid Empire]], his grave became the focus of much devoted attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage |
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made by [[Shah Ismail I]](d. 1524) to [[Najaf]] and [[Karbala]].<ref name="Islam"/> |
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==== Sufi ==== |
==== Sufi ==== |
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Sufis recite ''[[Manqabat]]'' Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after ''[[Hamd]]'' and ''[[Naat]]'' in their ''[[Qawwali]]''. |
Sufis recite ''[[Manqabat]]'' Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after ''[[Hamd]]'' and ''[[Naat]]'' in their ''[[Qawwali]]''. |
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====As a deity==== |
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{{Mainarticle|Ghulat}} |
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Some groups believed that Ali was a deity in his own right or he was God [[Incarnation|incarnate]]. They are known collectively as '[[Alawites|Nusairi]]' and are described as ''ghulat'' (exaggerators) by the vast majority of Islamic scholars. These groups have, in traditional Islamic thought, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits. |
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Ali is recorded as having clearly forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime.<ref>See: |
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* Peters (2003), pp.320 and 321 |
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* Halm (2004), pp. 154- 159 |
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* </ref> |
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===Non-Muslim view=== |
===Non-Muslim view=== |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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Shia of [[Iraq]] actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as [[Muhammad al Baqir]] and [[Jafar as Sadiq]] narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century AD are about biographies of [[The Fourteen Infallibles]] and [[Twelve Imams]]. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is ''[[Kitab al-Irshad]]'' by [[Shaykh Mufid]] (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as ''Manāqib'' which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography.<ref>[http://www.al-islam.org/mot/historiography/ Jafarian, Rasul; Translated by Delārām Furādī, Publisher:Message of Thaqalayn]</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{portal|Islam}} |
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* [[Alawism]] |
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* [[Alevi]] |
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* [[Fatimid]] |
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* [[Imam]] |
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* [[Ismaili]] |
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* [[List of Muslim reports]] |
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* [[Wali]] |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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* [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f8/v1f8a043.html Ali ibn Abi Talib] by I. K. Poonawala and E. Kohlberg in [[Encyclopedia Iranica]] |
* [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f8/v1f8a043.html Ali ibn Abi Talib] by I. K. Poonawala and E. Kohlberg in [[Encyclopedia Iranica]] |
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* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005712/Ali Ali], article on ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online'' |
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005712/Ali Ali], article on ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online'' |
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===Some of the Ali's most famous sermons and letters=== |
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* [http://www.al-islam.org/nahjul/index.htm Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib] Nahjul Balagha |
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* [http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/LetterDetail.php?Letter=53 Order to Maalik al-Ashtar, governor of Egypt] (UN Legal Committee, member states voted that the document should be considered as one of the sources of International Law.) [http://www.alferdaows.com/EnglishWebsite/the-un.asp The United Nation and Imam Ali’s Constitution] |
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* [http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/LetterDetail.php?Letter=31 A advice ti his son Hasan ib Ali] (This letter contains ethical advisement) |
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* [http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/SermonDetail.php?Sermon=185 185 Sermon about the Oneness of Allah] |
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* [http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/last-will-of-ali-ibn-abi-talib/last-will-of-ali-ibn-abi-talib.htm The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib] |
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===Sunni biography=== |
===Sunni biography=== |
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* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/politics/firstfourcaliphs.html#ali Biography from USC's MSA website] |
* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/politics/firstfourcaliphs.html#ali Biography from USC's MSA website] |
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* [http://anwary-islam.com/companion/ali-bin-%20abi-%20talib.htm Ali ibn Abi Talib] |
* [http://anwary-islam.com/companion/ali-bin-%20abi-%20talib.htm Ali ibn Abi Talib] |
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===Shi'a biography=== |
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* [http://al-islam.org/masoom/bios/1stimam.html The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali b. Abu Talib] by [[Shaykh Mufid]] in Kitab al-Irshad |
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* [http://www.imamalinet.net/en/indexe.htm Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib] |
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* [http://www.aljaafaria.com/aljaafaria-old/imamali.html Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib] |
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{{s-hou|[[Banu Hashim]]|March 17|599|February 28|661|[[Banu Quraish]]}} |
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{{s-ttl|title = [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imam]]|years = [[632]] – [[661]]}} |
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{{s-ttl|title = [[Caliphate|Rashidun Caliph]]|years = [[656]] – [[661]]}} |
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Revision as of 15:38, 5 July 2008
Ali | |||||
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Commander of the Faithful (Amir al-Mu'minin) | |||||
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Reign | 656 – 661[1] | ||||
Predecessor | Uthman Ibn Affan | ||||
Successor | Hasan[2]/Muawiya I | ||||
Burial | |||||
Wives |
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Issue | Hasan Husayn (See:Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib ) | ||||
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House | Ahl al-Bayt Banu Hashim | ||||
Father | Abu Talib | ||||
Mother | Fatima bint Asad |
Ali ibn Abu Talib ([undefined] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: no text (help), 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramadan, 40 AH; approximately, March 17 599 or 600[4] – January 27 661[5]) was the cousin, son-in-law and one of the Ahl al-Bayt, people of the house, of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, reigning over the Rashidun empire from 656 to 661. Sunni Muslims consider Ali as the fourth and final Rashidun (Rightly Guided Caliph).
His father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad[1] but he was raised in the household of Muhammad, who himself was raised by Abu Talib. When Muhammad reported receiving a divine revelation, Ali was among the first to accept his message, dedicating his life to the cause of Islam.[6][7][5][8]
Ali migrated to Medina shortly after Muhammad. There Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter, Fatimah, to Ali in marriage.[1] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of warriors on battles, and carrying messages and orders. Ali took part in almost all the battles fought for Islam.
Ali was appointed caliph by Muhammad's companions in Medina after the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan.[9] He encountered defiance and civil war (First Fitna) during his reign. In 661 CE, Ali was attacked while praying in the mosque of Kufa, dying a few days later.[10]
Muslims greatly respect Ali for his knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Qur'anic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[11][12] Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad.[1] Ali's influence has thus continued throughout Islamic history.
In Mecca
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Ali |
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Birth and childhood
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ambigram_-_Muhammad_and_Ali.jpg/220px-Ambigram_-_Muhammad_and_Ali.jpg)
Ali's father Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib was the custodian of the Kaaba and a sheikh of Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother Fatima binte Asad also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Ismael, the son of Ibrahim.[13]
Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, Ali's father took him into his house.[1] Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.[14]
Many sources, especially Shi'a ones, record that Ali was the only person born inside the Kaaba in the city of Mecca, where he stayed with his mother for three days. Some sources contend that he was born beside the Kaaba. According to the tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning "the exalted one".[1][15]
When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who had a big family to support. Muhammad was then requested to become Ali's guardian.[6] [16] [1]
Conversion to Islam
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The second period of Ali's life begins in 610 when he converted to Islam and ends with the Hijra of Muhammad to Medina in 622.[1] When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him and professed to Islam.[5][1][6][17] According to Ibn Ishaq, Ali was the first male to enter Islam. Tabari adds other traditions making the similar claim of being the first Muslim in relation to Zayd or Abu Bakr.[18] Some historians and scholars believe Ali's conversion is not worthy enough to consider him as the first male Muslim because he was a child at the time.[19]
Shi'as believe that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he converted to Islam before he took part in any pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion rites, regarded by Muslims as polytheistic (see shirk) or paganistic. Hence the Shi'a say of Ali that his face is honored - that is, it was never sullied by prostrations before idols.[6] Ali, along with some members of the Banu Hashim clan, were Hanifs prior to the coming of Islam.
After conversion to Islam
For three years Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret. Then he started inviting people publicly. When, according to the Qur'an, he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to Islam[20] he gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony. According to al-Tabari, Ibn Athir and Abu al-Fida that Muhammad told clearly that whoever would assist him in his invitation would become his brother, trustee and successor. Only Ali, who was 13 or 14 years old at that time, stepped forth and submitted to help him. This invitation was repeated three times but only Ali answered Muhammad. Then Muhammad declared that Ali is his brother, inheritor and vicegerent and people must obey him. Others laughed at them and dispersed.[21] This event is known as Hadith Yawm Al-Dar or Yawm Al-indhaar and Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīrah among Muslim historians and scholars.
During persecution of Muslims and boycott of Banu Hashim in Mecca, Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad.[22]
Migration to Medina
In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that Muhammad could escape in safety.[1][6][23] This night is called Laylat al-mabit. According to some hadith, a verse was revealed about Ali concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says, "And among men is he who sells his nafs (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah"[24][25]
Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with his mother, Muhammad's daughter Fatima and two other women.[6][5]
In Medina
During Muhammad's era
Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions (sahaba) he selected Ali as his brother.Cite error: A <ref>
tag is missing the closing </ref>
(see the help page).[6][26]
For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service as his secretary and deputy, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. [27] As one of Muhammad’s lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.
Family life
In 623, Muhammad told Ali that God ordered him to give his daughter Fatimah Zahra to Ali in marriage.[1] Muhammad said to Fatimah: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."[26] This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in the Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse of purification".[28][29] Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the only child of Muhammad to have progeny. Their two sons (Hasan and Husain) were cited by Muhammad to be his own sons, honored numerous times in his lifetime and titled "the leaders of the youth of Jannah" (Heaven, the hereafter.)
Theirs was a simple life, in fact, so far as material comforts were concerned, it was a life of hardship and deprivation. Throughout their life together, Ali remained poor because he did not set great store by material wealth. Fatimah was the only one of her sisters who was not married to a wealthy man. To relieve their extreme poverty, Ali worked as a drawer and carrier of water and she as a grinder of corn. Even often there was no food in her house. One day she said to Ali: "I have ground until my hands are blistered." and Ali answered "I have drawn water until I have pains in my chest,"[26][30]
Their marriage lasted about ten years and ended when Fatimah died. Although polygamy was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between the greatest saintly figures surrounding Muhammad. After Fatimah's death, Ali married other wives and fathered many children.[1]
In battles
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Dhulfiqar.png/220px-Dhulfiqar.png)
With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all battles and expeditions fought for Islam.[6] As well as being the standard-bearer in those battles, Ali led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands.
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. According to Muslim traditions Ali killed between twenty and thirty-five pagans, most agreeing with twenty seven.[31]
Ali was prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar.[32] He had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslim army escaped at the battle of Uhud[1] and it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar."[33] He was commander of the Muslim army in the Battle of Khaybar.[34] He also defended Muhammad in Battle of Hunayn in 630.[1]
Missions for Islam
Muhammad designated Ali as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qur'an, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali helped establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh in 628. Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and declare the orders. In 630, Ali recited to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of the Qur'an that declared Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the idols worshipped by the Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Kaaba to purify it after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era. Ali was sent to Yemen one year later to spread the teachings of Islam. Ali also was charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes.[1][5]
The incident of Mubahala
According to hadith collections, in 631 an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation[35], Muhammad called them to mubahala (cursing), where each party should ask God to destroy the lying party and their families.[36] Muhammad, to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah and his surviving grandchildren, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians and said this is my family and covered himself and his family with a cloak. Cite error: A <ref>
tag is missing the closing </ref>
(see the help page).:
"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.[37]."
- Dakake (2008), pp. 34 and 35
- Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319
- Event of Ghadir Khumm
"من كنت مولاه فهذا علي مولاه"</ref>."
Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence.[1][38]
Succession to Muhammad
After uniting the Arabian tribes into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.[39]While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, the closest companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph.
Muslims assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. Mainstream Muslims recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. They maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, (as Shias claim) then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree.
Inheritance
After Muhammad died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to turn over their property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her that prophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa."
After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance during Umar's era, but was denied with the same argument. Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property.[40]
Life after Muhammad
Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During these years, Ali neither took part in any battle or conquest.[5] nor did he assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after the death of his wife, Fatima Zahra. He used his time to serve his family and worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and gardens near Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known today as Abar Ali ("Ali's wells").[41] He also made gardens for his family and descendants.
Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, mus'haf.[42] six months after the death of Muhammad. The volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this mus'haf differed from that which was gathered later during the Uthmanic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against [[Origin and development of the Qur'an.
Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs
Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah.[5] Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but did not participate in the Ridda Wars.Cite error: A <ref>
tag is missing the closing </ref>
(see the help page).
Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph and one of the two major candidates. According to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.[43]
Siege of Uthman
Uthman Ibn Affan, expressed generosity toward his kin, Banu Abd-Shams, who seemed to dominate him and his supposed arrogant mistreatment toward several of the earliest companions such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and Ammar ibn Yasir provoked outrage among some groups of people. Dissatisfaction and resistance openly arose since 650-651 CE throughout most of the empire.[44] The dissatisfaction with his regime and the governments appointed by him was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia.[45] When Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, the noble companions including most of the the members of elector council, turned against him or at least withdrew their support putting pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of his assertive kin.[46]
Finally, dissatisfaction led to rebellion in Egypt, Kufa and Basra. At the start of the rebellion, people demanded that the exiled be returned to their homes, the deprived be provided sustenance, the men of strength and integrity be appointed as governors, and so on.[47] They requested Ali to speak to Uthman on their behalf and to admonish him for their sake.[5] Ali told Uthman "The people are behind me and they have made me an ambassador between you and themselves." He forewarned Uthman that he should change his manner immediately or he would be killed. Ali told him "I swear to you by Allah that you should not be that Imam of the people who will be killed because it has been said that, 'An imam of this people will be killed after which killing and fighting will be made open for them till the Day of Judgment, and he will confuse their matters and spread troubles over them. As a result, they will not discern truth from wrong.'"[48] Later, when Egyptian rebels gathered near Medina, Uthman asked Ali to speak with them. The delegates of Muhajirun led by Ali beside Ansari delegates led by Muhammad Ibn Maslamah met them and persuade them to return, by promising them in the name of the caliph, redress for all their grievances and agreeing to act as guarantors. Due to their mediation and Uthman's commitment, the rebellion settled down but then rose up again. Marwan persuaded Uthman to change his ways again. Ali warned Uthman that Marwan wants to ruin him. Gradually the relation between Uthman and Ali became worse.[49]
When Egyptian rebels returned to Medina, outraged by the official letter ordering the punishment of their leaders, Ali as the guarantor of Uthman's promises asked him to speak with the people directly. Uthman denied any knowledge about the letter and Ali and Muhammad Ibn Maslamah attested. At this time, however, the choices offered by the rebels amounted to resignation or abdication of Uthman and selection of another caliph. Ali left them when turmoil broke out. Ali seems to have broken with Uthman in despair over his own ability to break the disastrous influence of Marwan on the caliph. Ali intervened only when informed that the rebels were preventing the delivery of water to the besieged caliph. [50] He tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water.[5] There are different reports about Ali's role while rebels besieged his palace. Some historians, like Leone Caetani, accuse him as the chief culprit in the murder of the caliph, some others such as Madelung say Ali did not support Uthman while others report that Ali even sent his own sons to protect Uthman's house when he was in danger of being attacked. [51] [1]
First Fitna
The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. This group, then moved to Basra with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people in what is now Iraq. The rebels occupied Basra, killing many people. They refused Ali's offer of obedience and pledge of allegiance until Uthman's killers were not punished. The two sides met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.[52]
Ali appointed Ibn Abbas governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa. Later he was challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.>
The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites (schismatics), opposed this decision and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the Battle of Nahrawan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.[5][53]
Muawiyah's army invaded and plundered cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent and people did not support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas.[54]
This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.[55]
Death
On the 19th of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, a Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam assassinated him with a strike of his poison-coated sword. Ali, wounded by the poisonous sword, lived for two days and died in Kufa on the 21st of Ramadan in 661 CE.[56]
Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, since the assassination was performed by a single member of the group. They had to take vengeance against only Ibn Muljam.[57] Thus, Hasan fulfilled Qisas and killed ibn Muljam.[58]
Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. [12]
As Henry Corbin narrates, Ali himself gives this testimony:
Not a single verse of the Qur'an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general...[59]
In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1] According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic of Greek texts.[60]
Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression.[12] Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.
In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr,Islamic numerology, the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali.[1]
Related works
The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books.
- Nahj al-Balagha (Way of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered as an important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam.[61][62][1] Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa asaniduh written by al-Sayyid `Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib introduces some of these sources.[63] Also Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings have been collected. It includes the Nahj al-balagha and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Nahj al-balagha have been determined.[61] There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such as Comments of Ibn Abu al-Hadid and comments of Muhammad Abduh.
- Divan-i Ali ibn Abi Talib (poems of Ali ibn Abi Talib)[64]
- Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi(d. 1116) consists of over ten thounsads short sayings of Ali [65]
- Nuzhat al-Absar va Mahasin al-Asar, Ali's sermons which has compiled by Ali ibn Muhammad Tabari Mamtiri[66]
Descendants
Ali had several wives, Fatimah being the most beloved. He had four children by Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali[1] and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other well-known sons were al-Abbas ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.[67]
Hasan, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year 50 A.H., he was poisoned and killed by a member of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.[68]
Husayn, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. He lived under severe conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims.[69] In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. Al-Tabari has mentioned their names in his history. Al-Abbas, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam. Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful.[70] Some historians have added the names of Ali's others sons who were killed in Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-Asqar.[71][72]
His daughter Zaynab — who was in Karbala — was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.[73]
Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, sayeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by all muslims.
Views
Muslim view
Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1] Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names.
Mainstream Muslims regard Ali as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun caliphs and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman Ibn Affan.[12]
Sufi
Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shi'ite, believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.[1] Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of Islamic Sufism.
Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali.
Non-Muslim view
Some of the non-Muslim scholars such as Edward Gibbon[74] and Sir William Muir[75] have praised Ali while some others, such as Lammens[76], have held a negative view of Ali.
Historiography of Ali's life
The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shia Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.[1]
There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shia partisan positions; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aysha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures [77]
Until the rise of the Abbasid Dynasty, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work previous to this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays which is written by Sulaym ibn Qays(d.694-714), a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasid Dynasty.[78] When paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written during 750 and 950 AD. According to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf (d. 774) is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. 9th and 10th century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist anymore except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.932).[79]
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Ali". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2007-10-12.
- ^ Madelung (1997), p. 311
- ^ Ahmed (2005), p.234
- ^ Ahmed (2005), p.234
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2007-10-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Tabatabae (1979), p. 191
- ^ Ashraf, (2005) p.14
- ^ Diana, Steigerwald. "Ali ibn Abi Talib". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0028656040.
- ^ See:
- Ashraf, (2005) pp. 119-120
- Madelung (1997), pp. 141-145
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.47
- Holt (1970), pp.70 - 72
- Tabatabaei (1979), pp.50 - 57 and 192
- ^ Madelung (1997), 309-310
- ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference
firstfourcaliphs
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Ashraf (2005), p. 5.
- ^ Ashraf (2005), p. 6-7.
- ^
See:
- Ashraf (2005), p.6.
- Beyt Al-Hikama, Virtual library of witness pioneer
- ^ *Ashraf (2005), p.7.
- ^ Ashraf (2005), p. 14.
- ^ Watt (1953), p.xii
- ^ Watt (1953), p. 86
- ^ Quran 26:214
- ^ See:
- Momen (1985), p. 12
- Tabatabae (1979), p.39.
- ^ Ashraf (2005), p. 16-26.
- ^ Ashraf (2005), pp.28-29
- ^ Quran 2:207
- ^ Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan
- ^ a b c Fatima Bint Muhammad
- ^ See:
- Momen (1985), pp.13 and 14
- Ashraf (2005) pp.28-118
- ^ Quran 33:33
- ^ Madelung, 1997, pp. 14 and 15
- ^ Sahih Muslim Book 031, Number 5955
- ^ See:
- Ashraf (2005), p.36
- Merrick (2005), p.247
- ^ Khatab, Amal (May 1, 1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 1-897940-39-4.
- ^ Ibn Al Atheer, In his Biography, vol 2 p 107 "لا فتی الا علي لا سيف الا ذوالفقار"
- ^ See:
- Ashraf (2005), pp. 66-68
- Zeitlin (2007), p. 134
- ^ Quran 3:59
- ^ Quran 3:61
- ^ See:
- Dakake (2008), pp.39 and 40
- Sahih Muslim 031.5920 The Book Pertaining to the Merits of the Companions (Allah Be Pleased With Them) of the Holy Prophet (May Peace Be Upon Him) (Kitab Al-Fada'il Al-Sahabah)
- ^ Dakake (2008), pp.33-35
- ^ Lapidus (2002), p.31 and 32
- ^
- Madelung (1997) pp.62-64
- ^ History of Mecca, Medina and all other Ziyarats
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur'an". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Text "http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran" ignored (help) - ^ See:
- Madelung 1997 p. 70 - 72
- Dakake (2008), p.41
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. 87 and 88
- ^ Madelung (1997), p. 90
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. 92-107
- ^ * Madelung (1997), p. 129
- ^ See:
- al-Tabari (1990), v.XV pp.141 and 142
- Madelung (1997), pp. 111 and 114
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. 111-112
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. 112, 113 and 130
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. 107 and 134
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.47
- Holt (1970), p.70 - 72
- Tabatabaei (1979), p.50 - 53
- ^ See:
- Madelung (1997), pp. 241 - 259;
- Lapidus (2002), p. 47;
- Holt (1970), pp. 70 - 72;
- Tabatabaei (1979), pp. 53 - 54;
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp. 267-269 and 293-307
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.47
- Holt (1970), p.72
- Tabatabaei (1979), p.57
- ^ Tabatabae (1979), page 192
- ^ Kelsay (1993), p. 92
- ^ Madelung (1997), p.309
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.46
- ^ Corbin (1993), p. 35
- ^ a b Mutahhari, 1997 The Glimpses of Nahj al Balaghah Part I - Introduction
- ^ Shah-Kazemi (2006), p.3
- ^ Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought and Culture, Vol. VII, No. 1 issue of Al-Tawhid
- ^ Collection of Ali's poems (I Arabic)
- ^ Shah-Kazemi (2006), p.4
- ^ پیدا شدن مجموعه نفیس کلمات امام علی(ع) در واتیكان : «نزهه الأبصار و محاسن الآثار» عنوان کتابی است از ابوالحسن علی بن محمد بن مهدی طبری مامطیری، که دربر دارنده کلمات مولای متقیان امام علیبنابیطالب (ع) است و پیشینه ای بیش از نهجالبلاغه شریف رضی (ره) دارد
- ^ Stearns (2001), p.1178
- ^ Tabatabae (1979), page 194
- ^ Tabatabae (1979), page 196 - 201
- ^ Tabari (1990) vol.XIX pp. 178-179
- ^ The Sanctified Household
- ^ List of Martyrs of Karbala by Khansari "فرزندان اميراالمؤمنين(ع): 1-ابوبكربن علي(شهادت او مشكوك است). 2-جعفربن علي. 3-عباس بن علي(ابولفضل) 4-عبدالله بن علي. 5-عبدالله بن علي العباس بن علي. 6-عبدالله بن الاصغر. 7-عثمان بن علي. 8-عمر بن علي. 9-محمد الاصغر بن علي. 10-محمدبن العباس بن علي."
- ^ "Zaynab Bint ʿAlĪ". Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. 2004. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=
(help) - ^ The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1911, (originally published 1776-88) volume 5, pp. 381-2]
- ^ The Life of Mahomet, London, 1877, p. 250
- ^ Henri Lammens, Fatima and the Daughters of Muhammad, Rome and paris: Scripta Pontificii Instituti Biblici, 1912. Translation by Ibn Warraq.
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp.xi, 19 and 20
- ^
See:
- Dakake (2007), p.270
- Landolt (2005), p.59
- ^
See:
- Robinson (2003), pp.28 and 34
References
- Books
- Al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8.
- Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 0940368439.
- Ali ibn al-Athir. In his Biography, vol 2.
- Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid (1986). Kitab Al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Routledge Kegan & Paul. 0710301510.
- Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued by R. Stephen Humphreys. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791401545. (volume XV.)
- Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued by I. K. A. Howard. SUNY Press. ISBN 0395652375. (volume XIX.)
- Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 8126119403.
- Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834.
- Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|year=
(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791470334.
- Halm, Halm (2004). Shi'ism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748618880.
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 9698016228.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - Holt, P. M. (1970). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291356.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi ad-Din Ahmad. Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah.(In Arabic)
- Kelsay, Jhon (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664253024.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - Khatab, Amal (1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 1-897940-39-4.
- Landolt, Hermann (2005). Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1850434700.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
- Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
- Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1417955368.
- Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300035314.
- Motahhari, Morteza. Ensane Kamel (Perfect Man), translated by Aladdin Pazargadi, edited by Shah Tariq Kamal. Foreign Department Of Bonyad Be'that.
- Motahhari, Morteza (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organizati. 978-9644720710.
- Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim, Book 19, 31.
- Ordoni, Abu Muhammad (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN B000BWQ7N6.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Peters, F. E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691114617.
- Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521629365.
- Redha, Mohammad (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume). Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 2-7451-2532-X.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam Ali. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1845115260.
- Stearns, Peter N. (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0395652375.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Zahra. ISBN 0710302657.
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan.
- Qommi, Abbas. The Prayer's AlManac, English version of Mafatih al-Jinan.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Watt, William Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press.
- Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. ISBN 0745639984.
- Encyclopedia
- Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill. 2004. E-ISSN 1573-3912.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - Martin, Richard C. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0028656040.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1568590504.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - Ahmed, M. Mukarram (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 8126123397.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Meri, Josef W. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415966914.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Jones, Lindsay (2004). Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. ISBN 9780028657332.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help)
Further reading
- Abdul Rauf, Muhammad (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker. Al Saadawi Publications. ISBN 1881963497.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1987 to 1996). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes. SUNY Press.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|year=
(help) volumes 6-17 are relevant. - Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834.
- Motahhari, Murtaza (1981). Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. World Organization for Islamic Services, Tehran.
- Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. 1570622116.
- Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 0-941724-24-7.(in Arabic)
- Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might , translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 0950698660.
- Lakhani, M. Ali. (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. 1933316268.
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External links
- Ali ibn Abi Talib by I. K. Poonawala and E. Kohlberg in Encyclopedia Iranica
- Ali, article on Enyclopaedia Britannica Online