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{{Infobox Military Conflict |
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|conflict=Attack on Pearl Harbor |
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|partof=the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theater]] of [[World War II]] |
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|image=[[Image:Attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese planes view.jpg|300px]] |
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|caption=Photograph from a Japanese aircraft of Pearl Harbor including [[Battleship Row]] at the beginning of the attack. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']] |
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|date=December 7, 1941 |
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|place=Primarily [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]], [[USA]] (formerly US administrated territory) |
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|result=Decisive Japanese victory;<br/> [[Infamy Speech|United States declares war on the Empire of Japan]]; [[Axis Powers#Germany.27s and Italy.27s declaration of war against the United States|Nazi Germany and Kingdom of Italy declare war on the United States]]. |
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|casus=Oil and trade [[embargo]] by the United States; [[drviplomacy|diplomatic]] stalemate between Japan and the US. |
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|combatant1={{flag|United States|1912}} |
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|combatant2={{flagicon|Japan}} [[Empire of Japan]] |
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|commander1=<br/>{{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[Husband Kimmel]]<br />{{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[Walter Short]] |
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|commander2=<br/>{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Chuichi Nagumo]]<br />{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Isoroku Yamamoto]] |
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|strength1=8 battleships,<br/> 8 cruisers,<br/> 30 destroyers,<br/> 4 submarines,<br/> 49 other ships,<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-2.htm Ships present at Pearl Harbor 0800 December 7, 1941 US Navy Historical Center]</ref><br/> ~390 aircraft |
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|strength2='''[[Carrier Striking Task Force|Mobile Unit]]:'''<br />6 aircraft carriers,<br/>2 battleships,<br/> 2 heavy cruisers,<br/>1 light cruiser,<br/>9 destroyers,<br/> 8 tankers,<br/> 23 fleet submarines,<br/> 5 midget submarines,<br/> 414 aircraft |
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|casualties1=4 battleships sunk,<br />4 battleships damaged including 1 run aground<br />2 destroyers sunk, 1 damaged<br />1 other ship sunk, 3 damaged<br />3 cruisers damaged<ref name="Nimitz">[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/rep/Pearl/CinCPac-Damage.html CinCP report of damage to ships in Pearl Harbor] from www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar. Unless otherwise stated, all vessels listed were salvageable.</ref><br /><br />188 aircraft destroyed, 155 aircraft damaged,<br />2,345 military and 57 civilians killed,<br /> 1,247 military and 35 civilians wounded<ref name="ArmyChapter7pg194" /><ref name="Pearl Harbor Congress Report Pg64" /> |
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|casualties2=4 midget submarines sunk,<br /> 1 midget submarine run aground,<br />29 aircraft destroyed,<br /> 55 airmen, 9 submariners killed and 1 captured<ref>Martin Gilbert, The Second World War(1989) pg. 272</ref>}} |
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{{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}} |
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{{Campaignbox Pacific Ocean}} |
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The '''attack on Pearl Harbor''' (or ''Hawaii Operation'', ''Operation Z'', as it was called by the [[Japan]]ese [[Imperial General Headquarters]])<ref>Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, ''Proceedings'', 81 (December 1955), pp.1315-1331</ref> was a surprise [[military strike]] conducted by the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] [[Imperial Japanese Navy|navy]] against the [[United States]]' [[naval base]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]], on the morning of Sunday, December 7, 1941, later resulting in the United States becoming militarily involved in [[World War II]]. It was intended as a [[preventive war|preventive]] action to keep the [[U.S. Pacific Fleet]] from influencing the war Japan was planning to wage in [[Southeast Asia]] against [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the [[Netherlands]], and the United States. The attack consisted of two aerial attack waves totaling 353<ref name="parillo288">{{Harvnb|Parillo|2006|p=288}}</ref> aircraft, launched from six Japanese [[aircraft carrier]]s. |
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The attack sank four [[U.S. Navy]] [[battleship]]s (two of which were raised and returned to service late in the war) and damaged four more. The Japanese also sank or damaged three [[cruiser]]s, three [[destroyer]]s, and one [[minelayer]], destroyed 188 aircraft, and caused personnel losses of 2,402 killed and 1,282 wounded. The power station, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the [[Station Hypo|intelligence section]]) were not hit. Japanese losses were minimal, at 29 aircraft and four [[midget submarine]]s, with 65 servicemen killed or wounded. |
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The attack was a major engagement of World War II. It occurred before a formal [[declaration of war]] and before the last part of a 14-part message was delivered to the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The Japanese Embassy in Washington had been instructed to deliver it immediately prior to the scheduled time of the attack in Hawaii. The attack, and especially the surprise nature of it, were both factors in changing U.S. public opinion from the [[isolationism|isolationist]] position of the mid-1930s to support for direct participation in the war. Germany's prompt declaration of war, unforced by any [[Tripartite Pact|treaty commitment to Japan]], quickly brought the US into the [[European Theatre of World War II|European Theater]] as well. Despite numerous historical precedents of unannounced military action, the lack of any formal declaration prior to the attack led [[List of Presidents of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to proclaim [[Infamy Speech|"December 7th, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy"]]. |
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==Background to conflict== |
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{{main|Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor}} |
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The strike was intended to neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and hence protect Japan's advance into [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the [[Dutch East Indies]], where Japan sought access to natural resources such as [[petroleum|oil]] and rubber. Both the U.S. and Japan held long-standing contingency plans for war in the Pacific which were continuously updated as tensions between the two countries steadily increased during the 1930s, with the Japanese expansion into [[Manchuria]] and [[French Indochina]] greeted by steadily increased levels of embargoes and sanctions from the United States and other nations. |
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In 1940, under the authority granted by the [[Export Control Act]], the U.S. halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act.<ref name="PaW-96">{{Harvnb|GPO|1943|p=96|Ref=CITEREFGPO1943a}} After it was announced in September iron and steel scrap export would also be prohibited, Japanese Ambassador Horinouchi protested to Secretary Hull on October 8, 1940 warning this might be considered an "unfriendly act".</ref> The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil,<ref name="PaW-94">{{Harvnb|GPO|1943|p=94|Ref=CITEREFGPO1943a}}</ref><ref>Toland, ''Japan's War''.</ref> and likely to be considered a provocation by Japan. |
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Japanese planning staff studied the [[Battle of Taranto|1940 British attack on the Italian fleet]] at [[Taranto]] intensively. It was of great use to them when planning their attack on US naval forces in Pearl Harbor.<ref>"The Dorn report did not state with certainty that Kimmel and Short knew about Taranto. There is, however, no doubt that they did know, as did the Japanese. Lt. Cdr. Takeshi Naito, the assistance naval attaché to Berlin, flew to Taranto to investigate the attack first hand, and Naito subsequently had a lenghty conversation with Cdr. [[Mitsuo Fuchida]] about his observations. Fichida led the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941." ''Kimmel, Short, and Pearl Harbor: The Final Report Revealed.'' |
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By Frederic L. Borch, Daniel Martinez |
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Contributor Donald M. Goldstein |
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Published by Naval Institute Press, 2005, pp. 53-54. |
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ISBN 1591140900</ref><ref>"A torpedo bomber needed a long, level flight, and when released, its conventional torpedo would plunge nearly a hundred feet deep before swerving upward to strike a hull. Pearl Harbor deep averages 42 feet. But the Japanese borrowed an idea from the British carrier-based torpedo raid on the Italian naval base of Taranto. They fashioned auxiliary wooden tail fins to keep the torpedoes horizontal, so they would dive to only 35 feet, and they added a break-away "nosecone" of soft wood to cushion the impact with the surface of the water." ''Hellions of the Deep: The Development of American Torpedoes in World War II.'' |
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By Robert Gannon |
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Published by Penn State Press, 1996, page 49. |
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ISBN 027101508X</ref> |
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Following [[Invasion of French Indochina|Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the fall of France]], the U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in the Summer of 1941, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.<ref name="PaW-125">{{Harvnb|GPO|1943|p=125|Ref=CITEREFGPO1943a}}</ref> |
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[[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had earlier moved the Pacific Fleet to [[Hawaii]] and ordered a military buildup in the [[Philippines]] in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. As the Japanese high command was (mistakenly)<ref name="autogenerated2" /> certain any attack on the United Kingdom's Southeast Asian colonies would bring the U.S. into the war,<ref name="autogenerated2" /> a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way<ref name="autogenerated2" /> for Japan to avoid U.S. naval interference. An invasion of the Philippines was also considered to be necessary by Japanese war plans, while for the U.S., reconquest of the islands had been a given of [[War Plan Orange]] in the interwar years. |
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War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to [[Second Sino-Japanese War|all out war]] in 1937. In 1940, Japan [[Invasion of French Indochina|invaded French Indochina]] in both an effort to control supplies reaching China, and as a first step to improve her access to resources in Southeast Asia. This move prompted an American embargo on oil exports to Japan, which in turn caused the Japanese to initiate their planned takeover of oil production in the Dutch East Indies.<ref>This was mainly a Japanese Navy preference; the Japanese Army would have chosen to attack the Soviet Union. {{Harvnb|Peattie|1997}}; Coox, ''Kobun''.</ref> Furthermore, the transfer of the U.S. Pacific Fleet from its previous base in [[San Diego]] to its new base in Pearl Harbor was seen by the Japanese military as the U.S. readying itself for a potential conflict between the two countries. |
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[[Image:Pearl Harbor looking southwest-Oct41.jpg|thumb|left|Pearl Harbor on October 30, 1941.]] |
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Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area" (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun in very early 1941, under the auspices of Admiral Yamamoto, then commanding Japan's [[Combined Fleet]].<ref name=Gailey1995p68>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1995|p=68}}</ref> He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff]] only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command.<ref name=Gailey1995p70>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1995|p=70}}</ref> Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Captain [[Minoru Genda]]. Over the next several months, pilots trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence collected. Despite these preparations, actual approval of the attack plan was not issued by [[Emperor Hirohito]] until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences to consider the matter.<ref>Peter Wetzler, ''Hirohito and War'', 1998, p.39</ref> Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "[[Hull Note]]" would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger [[Manchukuo]] and undermine Japanese control of Korea."<ref>Bix, Herbert. ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', 2000, p.417, citing the Sugiyama memo)</ref></blockquote> By late 1941 U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on multiple occasions, with hostilities between the U.S. and Japan expected by many observers. U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target in any war with Japan, instead expecting the Philippines to be attacked first due to the threat it posed to sea lanes to the south<ref>Noted by [[Arthur MacArthur]]{{dn}} in the 1890s. Manchester, William. ''[[American Caesar]]''.</ref> and the erroneous belief that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.<ref>Peattie & Evans, ''Kaigun''</ref> |
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===Objectives=== |
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The attack had several major aims. First, it was supposed to destroy American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies. Second, it was a means to buy time for Japan to consolidate her position and increase her naval strength, before the shipbuilding of the [[Two-Ocean Navy Act|Vinson-Walsh Act]] erased any chance of victory.<ref name=Willmott14>Willmott, ''Barrier and the Javelin'', p.14.</ref><ref>[[Shigeru Fukudome|Fukudome, Shigeru]]. ''Shikan: Shinjuwan Kogeki'' (Tokyo, 1955), p.150.</ref> Finally, it was intended as a blow against American morale, which might discourage further fighting and enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference.<ref name=Willmott14/> |
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Making battleships the main target was a means of striking at morale, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time.<ref name=Willmott14/> Because both Japanese and American strategic thinking and doctrine was derived from the work of Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan|Alfred Mahan]],<ref>Miller, Edward S. ''War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945'' (Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute Press,1991).</ref> which held battleships were decisive in naval warfare,<ref>Mahan, Alfred T. ''The Influence of Seapower on History, 1660–1783'' (Boston: Little, Brown, 1918, reprinted 1949), ''passim''.</ref> it was also a means of striking at the fighting power of the Pacific Fleet; if it succeeded, it meant the ultimate Pacific battle ("decisive battle", in Japanese Navy thinking), which would inevitably be fought by battleships, would be postponed, if not prevented entirely. With that in mind, Yamamoto intended the Pacific Fleet should be sought and attacked "wherever it might be found in the Pacific".<ref>quoting Fukudome interview, in Prange ''et al.'', ''At Dawn We Slept'' (New York: Penguin, 1991), p.15.</ref> A 14 November 1941 tabletop exercise suggested alert defenders could sink two carriers and damage two more, even with providential weather,<ref>Prange ''et al.'', ''At Dawn We Slept'', pp.228 & 230.</ref> which amounted to all the strength Naval General Staff had wanted to allocate to the operation.<ref>Prange ''et al.'', ''At Dawn We Slept''.</ref> Nevertheless, Yamamoto pressed ahead. |
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Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the Navy Yard, oil tank farms, and Submarine Base, could safely be ignored, since the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.<ref>Willmott, ''Barrier and the Javelin''</ref> |
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== Approach and attack == |
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{{See also|Attack on Pearl Harbor order of battle}} |
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[[Image:PearlHarborCarrierChart.jpg|thumb|right|Route followed by the Japanese fleet to Pearl Harbor and back]] |
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On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers departed northern Japan ''en route'' to a position to northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor. In all, 405 aircraft were intended to be used: 360 for the two attack waves, 48 on defensive [[combat air patrol]] (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave. |
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The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to finish whatever tasks remained. The first wave contained the bulk of the weapons to attack [[capital ships]], mainly [[torpedo]]es. The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and [[aircraft carrier]]s) or, if either were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). [[Dive bomber]]s were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to counterattack the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over US airfields. |
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Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers were sent to scout over Oahu and report on enemy fleet composition and location. Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the ''Kido Butai'' and [[Niihau]], in order to prevent the task force from being caught by a surprise counterattack.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.navweaps.com/index_oob/OOB_WWII_Pacific/OOB_WWII_Pearl_Harbor.htm Order of Battle - Pearl Harbor - December 7, 1941<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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=== Submarines === |
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Fleet submarines [[Japanese submarine I-16|''I-16'']], [[Japanese submarine I-18|''I-18'']], [[Japanese submarine I-20|''I-20'']], [[Japanese submarine I-22|''I-22'']], and [[Japanese submarine I-24|''I-24'']] each embarked a [[Ko-hyoteki class submarine|Type A]] [[midget submarine]] for transport to the waters off Oahu.<ref name="proceedings">Stewart, A.J., Lieutenant Commander, USN. "Those Mysterious Midgets", ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'', December 1974, p.56</ref> The five I-boats left [[Kure Naval District]] on November 25, 1941,<ref name="p56">Stewart, p.56</ref> coming to 10 nm (19 km) off the mouth of Pearl Harbor<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldstein|Dillon|2000|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&pg=PA146&dq=midgets%22pearl+harbor%22&lr=&ei=uA_FSML0M5S0sgP176iKCw&sig=ACfU3U3C4k2fUnGZqZNyVArf_FhRk1wHrQ#PPA274,M1 274]}}</ref> and launched their charges, at about 01:00 December 7.<ref name="p57">Stewart, "Those Mysterious Midgets", p.57</ref> At 03:42<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1999|p=36}}</ref> [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawaiian Time]], the [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]] [[USS Condor (AMc-14)|USS ''Condor'']] spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted destroyer [[USS Ward (DD-139)|USS ''Ward'']].<ref name="p58">Stewart, "Those Mysterious Midgets", p.58</ref> That midget probably entered Pearl Harbor, but ''Ward'' sank another at 06:37<ref name="p58"/><ref>She was located by a [[University of Hawaii]] research submersible on August 28, 2002 in 400 meters of water, five miles outside the harbor.{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/HURL/midget.html|title= Japanese Midget Submarine|accessdate=2008-09-07 }}</ref> in the [[first American shots fired in World War II]]. A midget on the north side of Ford Island missed [[USS Curtiss (AV-4)|''Curtiss'']] with her first torpedo and missed the attacking [[USS Monaghan (DD-354)|''Monaghan'']] with her other one before being sunk by ''Monaghan'' at 08:43.<ref name="p58"/> |
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A third midget submarine grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8.<ref name="p60">Stewart, pp.59-61</ref> Ensign [[Kazuo Sakamaki]] swam ashore from her and became the first Japanese [[prisoner of war]].<ref>Sakamaki's unexpected survival was despised by many Japanese, who referred to his dead companions as "The Nine Young Gods."</ref> A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes.<ref name="p612">Stewart, "Those Mysterious Midgets", p.61-2</ref> A [[United States Naval Institute]] analysis of photographs from the attack conducted in 1999 indicated a midget may have successfully fired a torpedo into [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']]. Japanese forces received a radio communications from a midget submarine at 00:41 December 8 claiming damage to one or more large war vessels inside Pearl Harbor.<ref name="ussbs">Ofstie, R.A., Rear Admiral, USN. ''The Campaigns of the Pacific War'' (United States Government Printing Office, 1946), p.19</ref> That submarine's final disposition is unknown<ref>{{Harvnb|Rodgaard|1999}}</ref> but it did not return to its carrier sub.<ref name="Sunk">{{cite book |
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|author=Mochitsura Hashimoto |
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|title=Sunk |
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|year=1954 |
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|page=31 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Japanese declaration of war=== |
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{{seealso|Japanese declaration of war on the United States and Britain}} |
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While the attack ultimately took place before a formal declaration of war by Japan, Admiral Yamamoto originally stipulated the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States he considered the peace negotiations at an end.<ref>Calvocoressi ''et al.'', ''The Penguin History of the Second World War'', p.952</ref> In this way, the Japanese tried both to uphold the conventions of war as well as achieving surprise. Despite these intentions, the attack had already begun when the 5,000-word notification was delivered. Tokyo transmitted the message to the Japanese embassy (in two blocks), which ultimately took too long transcribing the message to deliver it in time, while U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of it hours<ref>Toland, ''Infamy''.</ref> before the Japanese embassy was scheduled to deliver it. While sometimes described as a declaration of war, "this dispatch neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations".<ref>{{Harvnb|Prange|Goldstein|Dillon|1988|p=58}}</ref> The declaration of war was printed in the front page of Japanese newspapers in the evening edition on December 8.<ref>[http://www.wpunj.edu/irt/courses/hist365/declarewar.htm Declaration of War handout<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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=== First wave === |
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[[Image:Pearlmap1.png|thumb|right|250px|The Japanese attacked in two waves. The first wave was detected by U.S. Army radar at {{convert|136|nmi|km|0}}, but was misidentified as USAAF bombers arriving from mainland U.S.A.<br />Top:<br/>A. Ford Island NAS B. Hickam Field C. Bellows Field D. Wheeler Field<br /> E. Kaneohe NAS F. Ewa MCAS R-1. Opana Radar Station R-2. Kawailoa RS R-3. Kaaawa RS<br/>G. Haleiwa H. Kahuku I. Wahiawa J. Kaneohe K. Honolulu<br/>0. B-17s from mainland 1. First strike group 1-1. Level bombers 1-2. Torpedo bombers 1-3. Dive bombers 2. Second strike group 2-1. Level bombers 2-1F. Fighters 2-2. Dive bombers<br/>Bottom:<br/>A. Wake Island B. Midway Islands C. Johnston Island D. Hawaii<br/>D-1. O{{okina}}ahu 1. USS ''Lexington'' 2. USS ''Enterprise'' 3. First Air Fleet]]<!-- What is up with the last part of that? O{{okina}}ahu1?!? is that right? --><!--It's a spacing issue...--> |
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[[Image:Pearlmap2.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Image:Phdepth.png]] Attacked targets:<br />1: [[w:USS California (BB-44)|USS ''California'']]<br/> 2: [[w:USS Maryland (BB-46)|USS ''Maryland'']]<br/> 3: [[w:USS Oklahoma (BB-37)|USS ''Oklahoma'']]<br/> 4: [[w:USS Tennessee (BB-43)|USS ''Tennessee'']]<br/> 5: [[w:USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']]<br/> |
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6: [[w:USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']]<br/> 7: [[w:USS Nevada (BB-36)|USS ''Nevada'']]<br/> 8: [[w:USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)|USS ''Pennsylvania'']]<br/> 9: [[w:Ford Island|Ford Island NAS]]<br/> 10: [[w:Hickam Air Force Base|Hickam field]]<br/>Ignored infrastructure targets:<br/> |
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A: Oil storage tanks<br/> B:<small>CINCPAC</small> headquarters building<br/> C: Submarine base<br/> D: Navy Yard]] |
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The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of O{{okina}}ahu, commanded by [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[Mitsuo Fuchida]]. Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> It included:<ref name="IJN">[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/PTO-Campaigns/USSBS-PTO-2.html#appendix3 AIRCRAFT ATTACK ORGANIZATION] The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, Planning and Execution. First wave: 189 planes, 50 Kates w/bombs, 40 Kates with torpedoes, 54 Vals, 45 Zekes Second wave: 171 planes, 54 Kates w/bombs, 81 Vals, 36 Zekes. The Combat Air Patrol over the carriers alternated 18 plane shifts every two hours with 18 more ready for takeoff on the flight decks and an additional 18 ready on hangar decks.</ref> |
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* '''1st Group''' (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)<ref name=navsource-ijnaf>{{Harvnb|NavSource|2003}}</ref> |
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** 50 [[Nakajima B5N]] bombers armed with 800 [[Kilogram|kg]] (1760 [[pound (mass)|lb]]) [[armor piercing bomb]]s, organized in four sections |
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** 40 B5N bombers armed with [[Type 91 torpedo]]es, also in four sections |
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* '''2nd Group''' — (targets: [[Ford Island]] and [[Wheeler Field]]) |
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** 54 [[Aichi D3A]] dive bombers armed with {{Auto lb|550|0}} [[general purpose bomb]]s |
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* '''3rd Group''' — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe) |
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** 45 [[A6M Zero|Mitsubishi A6M]] fighters for air control and [[strafe|strafing]]<ref name="IJN" /> |
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As the first wave approached O{{okina}}ahu a U.S. Army [[SCR-270 radar|SCR-270]] [[radar]] at [[Opana Radar Site|Opana Point]] near the island's northern tip (a post not yet operational, having been in training mode for months) detected them and called in a warning. Although the operators reported a target echo larger than anything they had ever seen, an untrained officer at the new and only partially activated Intercept Center, Lieutenant [[Kermit A. Tyler]], presumed the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers was the source. The direction from which the aircraft were coming was close (only a few degrees separated the two inbound courses),<ref>{{Harvnb|Prange|1999|p=98}}</ref> while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar;<ref>Prange ''et al.'', ''At Dawn We Slept'', p.500.</ref> they neglected to tell Tyler of its size,<ref name="prange501">Prange ''et al.'', ''At Dawn We Slept'', p.501.</ref> while Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell them the B-17s were due<ref name="prange501"/> (even though it was widely known).<ref name="prange501"/> |
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Several U.S. aircraft were shot down as the first wave approached land, and one at least radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the [[Philippines]] were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though [[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur]] had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked at Pearl and specific orders to commence operations before they actually struck his command. |
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The air portion of the attack on Pearl Harbor began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3:18 a.m. December 8 [[Japanese Standard Time]], as kept by ships of the ''Kido Butai''), with the attack on Kaneohe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prange|1999|p=174}}</ref> A total of 353<ref name="parillo288"/> Japanese planes in two waves reached O{{okina}}ahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across O{{okina}}ahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Force fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Air Corps' [[Bellows Field]] near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and [[Ford Island]]. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of [[P-36 Hawk]]s and [[P-40 Warhawk]]s.<ref>In the twenty-five sorties flown, USAF Historical Study No.85 credits six pilots with ten planes destroyed: 1st Lt Lewis M. Sanders (P-36) and 2nd Lts Philip M Rasmussen (P-36), Gordon H. Sterling Jr. (P-36, [[killed in action]]), Harry W. Brown (P-36), [[Kenneth M. Taylor]] (P-40, 2), and [[George Welch (pilot)|George S. Welch]] (P-40, 4). Three of the P-36 kills were not verified by the Japanese and may have been shot down by naval [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] fire.</ref> |
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Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire prompting bleary eyed men into dressing as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not<!--[sic]--> drill.",<ref>Odd though it may sound, "not" is correct, in keeping with standard Navy telegraphic practice. This was confirmed by Beloite and Beloite after years of research and debate.</ref> was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to deter sabotage,<ref name="parillo293">{{Harvnb|Parillo|2006|p=293}}</ref> guns unmanned (none of the Navy's [[5"/38 caliber gun|5"/38s]] and only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action).<ref name="parillo293" /> Despite this and low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the battle.<ref>The gunners that did get in action scored most of the victories against Japanese aircraft that morning, including the first of the attack, by [[USS Tautog (SS-199)|''Tautog'']], and [[Dorie Miller]]'s [[Navy Cross]]-worthy effort. Miller was an [[African-American]] cook aboard ''West Virginia'' who took over an unattended [[anti-aircraft gun]] on which he had no training. He was the first African-American sailor to be awarded the Navy Cross.</ref> Ensign Joe Taussig got his ship, [[USS Nevada (BB-36)|USS ''Nevada'']], underway from dead cold during the attack. One of the destroyers, [[USS Aylwin (DD-355)|USS ''Aylwin'']], got underway with only four officers aboard, all Ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for four days before her commanding officer managed to get aboard. Captain [[Mervyn Bennion]], commanding [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']] (Kimmel's flagship), led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb hit to [[USS Tennessee (BB-43)|USS ''Tennessee'']], moored alongside. |
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Gallantry was widespread. In all, 14 officers and sailors were awarded the [[Medal of Honor]]. A special [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|military award]], the [[Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal]], was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack. |
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=== Second wave composition === |
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The second wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by [[Lieutenant-Commander]] [[Shigekazu Shimazaki]].<ref name="IJN"/> Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> This wave and its targets comprised:<ref name="IJN"/> |
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* '''1st Group''' — 54 B5Ns armed with {{Auto lb|550|0}} and {{Auto lb|132}} general purpose bombs<ref name=navsource-ijnaf /> |
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** 27 B5Ns — aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point |
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** 27 B5N — hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field |
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* '''2nd Group''' (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers) |
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** 81 D3As armed with {{Auto lb|550|0}} general purpose bombs, in four sections |
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* '''3rd Group''' — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickham Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe) |
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**36 A6Ms for defense and strafing |
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The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāne{{okina}}ohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously, from several directions. |
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Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,386 Americans died (55 were civilians, most killed by unexploded American anti-aircraft shells landing in civilian areas), a further 1,139 wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships.<ref name="ArmyChapter7pg194"> {{Harvnb|Conn|2000|p=194}} (Navy and Marines: 2,117 killed in action or died of wounds, 779 wounded; Army 215 killed in action or died of wounds, 360 wounded).</ref><ref name="Pearl Harbor Congress Report Pg64"> {{Harvnb|GPO|1946|pp=64-65|Ref=CITEREFGPO1946a}}</ref> |
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Of the American fatalities, nearly half of the total were due to the explosion of [[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']]'s forward [[Gunpowder magazine|magazine]] after it was hit by a modified 40 cm (16 in.) shell.<ref>The wreck has become a [[USS Arizona Memorial|memorial]] to those lost that day, most of whom remain within the ship. She continues to leak small amounts of fuel oil, over 60 years after the attack.</ref> Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd]] and ''Arizona'' Captain [[Franklin Van Valkenburgh]] were vaporized on the bridge. |
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Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire forward, ''Nevada'' attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way, sustaining more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs as she was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance. |
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[[USS California (BB-44)|USS ''California'']] was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from ''Arizona'' and ''West Virginia'' drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship [[USS Utah (BB-31)|USS ''Utah'']] was holed twice by torpedoes. [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']] was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. [[USS Oklahoma (BB-37)|USS ''Oklahoma'']] was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to [[capsize]]. [[USS Maryland (BB-46)|USS ''Maryland'']] was hit by two of the converted 40 cm shells, but neither caused serious damage. |
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Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser [[USS Helena (CL-50)|USS ''Helena'']] was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer [[USS Oglala (CM-4)|USS ''Oglala'']]. Two destroyers in dry dock were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel [[bunker]]s. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and so the ships were burned out. The light cruiser [[USS Raleigh (CL-7)|USS ''Raleigh'']] was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser [[USS Honolulu (CL-48)|USS ''Honolulu'']] was damaged but remained in service. The destroyer [[USS Cassin (DD-372)|USS ''Cassin'']] capsized, and destroyer [[USS Downes (DD-375)|USS ''Downes'']] was heavily damaged. The repair vessel [[USS Vestal (AR-4)|USS ''Vestal'']], moored alongside ''Arizona'', was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender [[USS Curtiss (AV-4)|USS ''Curtiss'']] was also damaged. The destroyer [[USS Shaw (DD-373)|USS ''Shaw'']] was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.<ref>{{Harvnb|USS Shaw (DD-373)|Ref=CITEREFdanfs373}}</ref> |
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Of the 402<ref name="parillo288"/> American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged,<ref name="parillo288"/> 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Of 33 [[PBY]]s in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from [[USS Enterprise (CV-6)|USS ''Enterprise'']]. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel. |
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Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the action, and one was captured. Of Japan's 414<ref name="IJN"/> available planes, 29 were lost during the battle<ref name=Ofstie1946p18>{{Harvnb|Ofstie|1946|p=18}}</ref> (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second),<ref>[[USAAF]] pilots of the 46th and 47th Pursuit Squadrons, 15th Pursuit Group, claim to have destroyed 10.</ref> with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground. |
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=== Possible third wave === |
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Several Japanese junior officers, including [[Mitsuo Fuchida]] and [[Minoru Genda]], the chief architect of the attack, urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor's fuel and torpedo<ref>In the event, loss of these might have been a net benefit to the U.S. Blair, ''passim''.</ref> storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible.<ref name=Gailey1997p68>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|p=68}}</ref> Military historians have suggested the destruction of these would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than loss of its battleships.<ref>Willmott, ''Barrier and the Javelin''; Blair, ''Silent Victory''.</ref> If they had been wiped out, "serious [American] operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year."<ref name=Gailey1997pp97-98>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|pp=97–98}}</ref> Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons: |
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*American anti-aircraft performance had improved considerably during the second strike, and two thirds of Japan's losses were incurred during the second wave.<ref name=Hoyt190>{{Harvnb|Hoyt|2000|p=190}}</ref> Nagumo felt if he launched a third strike, he would be risking three quarters of the Combined Fleet's strength to wipe out the remaining targets (which included the facilities) while suffering higher aircraft losses.<ref name=Hoyt190/> |
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*The location of the American carriers remained unknown. In addition, the Admiral was concerned his force was now within range of American land-based bombers.<ref name=Hoyt190/> Nagumo was uncertain whether the U.S. had enough surviving planes remaining on Hawaii to launch an attack against his carriers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hoyt|2000|p=191}}</ref> |
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*A third wave would have required substantial preparation and turnaround time, and would have meant returning planes would have had to land at night. At the time, only the Royal Navy had developed night carrier techniques, so this was a substantial risk. |
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*The task force's fuel situation did not permit him to remain in waters north of Pearl Harbor much longer, since he was at the very limits of logistical support. To do so risked running unacceptably low on fuel, perhaps even having to abandon destroyers ''en route'' home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prange|1999}}</ref> |
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*He believed the second strike had essentially satisfied the main objective of his mission — the neutralization of the Pacific Fleet — and did not wish to risk further losses.<ref name=Gailey1997p97>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|p=97}}</ref> Moreover, it was Japanese Navy practice to prefer the conservation of strength over the total destruction of the enemy.<ref>Willmott, p.16.</ref> |
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At a conference aboard ''Yamato'' the following morning, Yamamoto initially supported Nagumo.<ref name=Gailey1997p97 /> In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and oil depots meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.<ref name=Gailey1997p98>{{Harvnb|Gailey|1997|p=98}}</ref> |
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==Gallery== |
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<gallery perrow="4"> |
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Image:Jap Zero leaves Akagi-Pearl Harbor.jpg|A Japanese [[Mitsubishi A6M|Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero"]] fighter airplane of the second wave takes off from the aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|''Akagi'']] on the morning of December 7, 1941. |
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Image:Carrier shokaku.jpg|Zeroes of the second wave preparing to take off from ''[[Shokaku]]'' for Pearl Harbor |
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Image:Jap plane leaves Shokaku-Pearl Harbor.jpg|A Japanese [[Nakajima B5N|Nakajima B5N2 "Kate"]] torpedo bomber takes off from ''Shokaku''. |
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Image:Jap_planes_preparing-Pearl_Harbor.jpg|Japanese [[Aichi D3A|Aichi D3A1 "Val"]] dive bombers of the second wave preparing to take off. Aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū|''Soryu'']] in the background. |
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Image:USS California sinking-Pearl Harbor.jpg|Battleship [[USS California (BB-44)|USS ''California'']] sinking |
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Image:Pearlharborcolork13513.jpg|Battleship [[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']] explodes. |
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Image:USS SHAW exploding Pearl Harbor Nara 80-G-16871 2.jpg|Destroyer [[USS Shaw (DD-373)|USS ''Shaw'']] exploding after her forward magazine was detonated |
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Image:USS Nevada attempts escape from Pearl 80G32558.jpg|Battleship [[USS Nevada (BB-36)|USS ''Nevada'']] attempting to escape from the harbor. |
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Image:USS West Virginia;014824.jpg|Battleship [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']] took two aerial bombs, both duds, and seven torpedo hits, one of which may have come from a midget submarine. |
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Image:NARA 28-1277a.gif|A destroyed [[Boeing B-17|B-17]] after the attack on Hickam Field. |
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Image:PLanes_burning-Ford_Island-Pearl_Harbor.jpg|Hangar in [[Ford Island]] burns |
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Image:Pearl harbour.png|Aftermath: [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|USS ''West Virginia'']] (severely damaged), [[USS Tennessee (BB-43)|USS ''Tennessee'']] (damaged), and the [[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']] (sunk). |
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</gallery> |
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==Salvage== |
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[[Image:NH64486 Wallin aboard BB-44.jpg|thumb|Captain [[Homer N. Wallin]] (center) supervises salvage operations aboard [[USS California (BB-44)|USS ''California'']], early 1942]] |
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After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain [[Homer N. Wallin]], Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately retained to lead salvage operations.<ref>Commander [[Edward Ellsberg]] was ordered to [[Massawa]] as his replacement, to assist the British in clearing [[Scuttling|scuttled]] Italian and German ships. This arguably delayed by several months British hopes for a useful port on the Red Sea. Commander [[Edward Ellsberg]], O.B.E. ''[[Under the Red Sea Sun]]'' (Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1946).</ref> |
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Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships which could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl and on the mainland for extensive repair. |
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Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 hours under water.<ref>Raymer, E.C: "Descent Into Darkness", Presidio Press, 1996.</ref> ''Oklahoma'', while successfully raised, was never repaired. ''Arizona'' and the target ship ''Utah'' were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk,<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/bb37usa/postattacksalvageI.html Post-attack ship salvage 1942-1944]</ref> with ''Arizona'' becoming a [[USS Arizona Memorial|war memorial]]. |
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== Aftermath == |
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{{main|Results of the attack on Pearl Harbor}} |
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[[Image:Pennsylvania-cassin-downes.jpg|thumb|right|[[USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)|USS ''Pennsylvania'']], behind the wreckage of the [[USS Downes (DD-375)|USS ''Downes'']] and [[USS Cassin (DD-372)|USS ''Cassin''.]]]] |
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In the wake of the attack, 16 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Crosses, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Stars were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor.<ref>=Pearl Harbor 1941=Osprey Campaign Series #62</ref> |
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In Europe, Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy subsequently declared war on the United States immediately after they began operations against a fellow Axis member, with Hitler stating in a delivered speech: |
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“The fact that the Japanese Government, which has been negotiating for years with this man [Franklin D. Roosevelt], has at last become tired of being mocked by him in such an unworthy way, fills us all, the German people, and all other decent people in the world, with deep satisfaction ... Germany and Italy have been finally compelled, in view of this, and in loyalty to the [[Tripartite Pact]], to carry on the struggle against the U.S.A. and England jointly and side by side with Japan for the defense and thus for the maintenance of the liberty and independence of their nations and empires ... As a consequence of the further extension of President Roosevelt's policy, which is aimed at unrestricted world domination and dictatorship, the U.S.A. together with England have not hesitated from using any means to dispute the rights of the German, Italian and Japanese nations to the basis of their natural existence ... Not only because we are the ally of Japan, but also because Germany and Italy have enough insight and strength to comprehend that, in these historic times, the existence or non-existence of the nations, is being decided perhaps forever.” |
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Though the attack inflicted large-scale destruction on US vessels and aircraft, it did not affect Pearl Harbor's fuel storage, maintenance, submarine, and intelligence facilities. |
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The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Three days later, the [[sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'' were sunk]] off the coast of [[British Malaya|Malaya]], causing British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Churchill War Papers: The Ever-Widening War |last=Churchill |first=Winston |authorlink=Winston Churchill |coauthors=Martin Gilbert |volume=Volume 3: 1941 |year=2001 |publisher=W.W. Norton |location=London, New York |isbn=0393019594 |page= |pages=1593–1594 |chapter=December 1941 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vx3lMi6AKmIC&pg=PA1593 }}</ref> |
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Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack, otherwise the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or so (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines — the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. Five of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, but their slow speed limited their deployment, serving mainly in shore bombardment roles. A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain [[Alfred Mahan]]. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened. |
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Ultimately, targets not on Genda's list, such as the submarine base and the old headquarters building, proved more important than any battleship. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy's heavy ships and brought Japan's economy to a standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials. Also, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the [[Station HYPO|cryptanalytic unit]] which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force's success. |
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===Strategic Implications=== |
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Admiral [[Tadaichi Hara|Hara Tadaichi]] summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war."<ref>Haufler, Herve. ''Codebreaker's Victory: How the Allied Cryptographers Won World War II'' (New York: NAL, 2003), quoted p.127.</ref> |
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While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon 'charging' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange).<ref name="autogenerated2">{{Harvnb|Peattie|1997}}</ref> The U.S. instead adopted "[[Plan Dog]]" in 1940, which emphasized keeping the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hakim | first = Joy | title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1995 | location = New York | pages = | isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }}</ref> |
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==Controversy== |
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There has been ongoing controversy due to allegations made by [[conspiracy theorists]], and former [[armed forces]] personnel that some members of the [[Roosevelt administration]] had [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate|advance knowledge]] of the attack, and that this was purposefully ignored in order to gain public and [[United States Congress|Congressional]] support for America entering the war on the side of the British Empire and her allies. See ''[[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate]] for more information.'' |
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==Media== |
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{{listen |
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| filename = Roosevelt Pearl Harbor.ogg |
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| title = FDR Pearl Harbor speech |
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| description = Speech given before Joint Session of Congress in entirety. (3.1 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format).<br />[[:s:Pearl Harbor speech|Read full text on Wikisource]] |
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| format = [[Vorbis]] |
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| filename2 = Roosevelt Infamy.ogg |
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| title2 = "A date which will live in infamy" |
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| description2 = Section of Pearl Harbor speech with famous phrase. (168 [[Kilobyte|KB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
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| format2 = [[Vorbis]] |
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}} |
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==Films and books== |
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===Fiction=== |
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*''[[The Final Countdown (film)|The Final Countdown]]'' is a movie set around Pearl Harbor, in which the nuclear [[aircraft carrier]], {{USS|Nimitz|CVN-68|6}}, from 1980 is [[time travel|time-warped]] back to December 6, 1941, one day before the attack on the base. |
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*''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' by [[James Jones (author)|James Jones]]. The attack on Pearl Harbor plays a crucial role for Robert E. Lee Prewitt. |
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===Historical fiction=== |
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*''Hawai Middouei daikaikusen: Taiheiyo no arashi'' (Hawaii-Midway Battle of the Sea and Sky: Storm in the Pacific Ocean) was produced by the Japanese studio [[Toho|Toho Company Ltd.]] in 1960 telling the story of Japanese airmen who served in the Pearl Harbor Raid and Battle of Midway. An edited version dubbed into English as ''I Bombed Pearl Harbor'' was given a US release in 1961. |
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*''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' is a movie about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Many consider this to be the most faithful movie re-telling of the attack as it deals with many aspects of the battle with attention to historical fact. ''Tora! Tora! Tora!'' reuses some special effects footage from the Toho film ''Storm in the Pacific''. |
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*''[[Pearl Harbor (film)|Pearl Harbor]]'' is the title of a 2001 film about the 1941 attack. The film is a love story rather than an accurate chronicle of the event, although some of the events portrayed actually took place. A number of the shipboard scenes were filmed on the {{USS|Lexington|CV-16|6}} in Corpus Christi, Texas. The film is directed by [[Michael Bay]] and stars [[Ben Affleck]], [[Josh Hartnett]], [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]] and [[Kate Beckinsale]]. |
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*''[[December 7th (film)|December 7th]]'', directed by [[John Ford]] for the U.S. Navy in 1943, is a film that recreates the attacks of the Japanese forces. Other documentaries, as well as media stories, have mistakenly replayed images from this film, passing them off as authentic footage of the actual Pearl Harbor attack.<ref name="hnn staff"> |
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{{cite web |
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| url = http://hnn.us/articles/88.html |
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| title = CNN's Pearl Harbor Mistake |
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| accessdate = 2009-03-13 |
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| author = [[History News Network]] |
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| date = 2001-06-10 |
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| publisher = [http://www.hnn.us History News Network] |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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===Non-fiction/historical=== |
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*''Day of Infamy'' by [[Walter Lord]] was one of the most popular nonfiction accounts of the attack on Pearl Harbor.<ref>Walter Lord, ''Day of Infamy'' (Henry Holt and Co., 1957. ASIN: B002A503FA; Holt Paperbacks, 60th ed. 2001, ISBN 0805068031, ISBN 978-0805068030)</ref> |
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*''At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor'' by [[Gordon W. Prange]] is an extremely comprehensive account of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack. It is a balanced account that gives both the perspective of the Japanese and United States. Prange spent 37 years researching the book by studying documents about Pearl Harbor and interviewing surviving participants to attempt the most exhaustive truth about what happened to bring the Japanese to attack the United States at Pearl Harbor, why the United States intelligence failed to predict the attack, and why a peace agreement was not attained. The Village said about ''At Dawn We Slept'', "By far the most exhaustive and complete account we are likely to have of exactly what happened and how and why." |
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*''The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History'' by Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis is a careful recreation of the "Day of Infamy" using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD. From the early stages of Japanese planning, through the attack on [[Battleship Row]], to the salvage of the U.S. Pacific fleet, this book provides a detailed overview of the attack. |
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*''Pearl Harbor Countdown: Admiral James O. Richardson'' by Skipper Steely is an insightful and detailed account of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor disaster. Through his comprehensive treatment of the life and times of Admiral [[James O. Richardson]], Steely explores four decades of American foreign policy, traditional military practice, U.S. intelligence, and the administrative side of the military, exposing the largely untold story of the events leading up to the Japanese attack. |
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=== Alternate history === |
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*''[[Days of Infamy]]'' is a novel by [[Harry Turtledove]] in which the Japanese attack on Hawaii is not limited to a strike on Pearl Harbor, but is instead a full-scale invasion and eventual occupation after U.S. forces are driven off the islands (something that one of the key planners of the attack, Commander [[Minoru Genda]] wanted but the higher-ups rejected). The many viewpoint characters (a Turtledove trademark) are drawn from Hawaiian civilians (both white and Japanese) as well as soldiers and sailors from both Japan and the USA. Turtledove has to date written one sequel, ''The End of the Beginning''. |
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*In the computer game ''[[Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2]]'', Pearl Harbor is the location of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion during [[World War III]]. In the first game of the Red Alert series, Adolf Hitler was removed from history by Einstein’s ‘Chronosphere’ system, preventing the Holocaust and presumably the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. A general in the game jokes, “as if someone could mount a successful attack there.” Interestingly enough, the Arizona Memorial was still included in the game, even though the ship would never have been destroyed during the game's alternate timeline. |
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* The airstrike and Hawaii-invasion premise of ''Days of Infamy'' was earlier used in the first episode of the anime OVA series ''[[Konpeki no Kantai]]''. In the episode, Japan carries out the attack in the early hours of the morning, having perfected night carrier operations. The raid begins with a flare drop by [[pathfinders]]{{dn}}. The entire base (including the repair facilities) and a number of supply ships in the harbor are destroyed by daybreak. As for the main body of the Pacific Fleet, the Combined Fleet regroups and annihilates them while they return to Pearl Harbor. The episode, which is divided up into three stages in the series' game version, ends with Japanese troops landing at all islands in Hawaii. |
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== See also == |
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{{portal|World War II|Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg}} |
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{{portalpar|Military of the United States|Naval Jack of the United States.svg|35}} |
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{{portal|War|Bluetank.png|35}} |
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* [[Niihau Incident]] |
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* [[Attacks on North America during World War II]] |
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* [[List of United States Navy losses in World War II]] |
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* [[List of United States Navy ships present at Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941]] |
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* [[Pearl Harbor]] |
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* [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate]] |
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* [[Pearl Harbor Survivors Association]] |
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* [[USS Arizona Memorial|USS ''Arizona'' Memorial]] |
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* [[Day of Deceit|''Day of Deceit: The Truth about FDR and Pearl Harbor'']] |
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* ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' |
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* ''[[In Defense of Internment]]'' |
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== References == |
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=== Notes === |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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=== Bibliography === |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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==== Books ==== |
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*{{Citation |
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|ref=CITEREFConn2000 |
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|last=Conn |
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|first=Stetson |
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|last2 =Fairchild |
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|first2=Byron |
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|last3=Engelman |
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|first3=Rose C. |
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|title=Guarding the United States and Its Outposts |
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|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/guard-us/index.htm |
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|chapter=7 — The Attack on Pearl Harbor |
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|chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/guard-us/ch7.htm |
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|year = 2000 |
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|place = Washington D.C. |
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|publisher = Center of Military History United States Army}} |
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{{anchor|CITEREFGailey1995}}<!-- published in 1995 and 1997 --> |
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*{{Citation |
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|title=War in the Pacific: From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay |
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|last=Gailey |
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|first=Harry A. |
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|publisher=Presidio |
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|year=1997 |
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|isbn=0891416161}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|title=Pearl Harbor |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lq8LAAAACAAJ |
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|last=Hoyt |
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|first=Edwin P. |
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|publisher=G. K. Hall |
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|year=2000 |
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|isbn=0783893035}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last = Hakim |
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| first = Joy |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz |
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| publisher = Oxford University Press |
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| date = 1995 |
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| location = New York |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| doi = |
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| id = |
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| isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }} |
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*{{Citation |
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|title=The Campaigns of the Pacific War |
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|last=Ofstie |
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|first=Ralph, A., RADM USN, Naval Analysis Division, United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific) |
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|author-link=Ralph A. Ofstie |
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|publisher=United States Government Printing Office |
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|year=1946}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|ref=CITEREFPeattie1997 |
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|title=Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy |
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|last=Peattie |
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|first=David C. |
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|last2=Evans |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ogwJAAAACAAJ&dq=kaigun&ei=hvFYR9G5CYbktAOJnY2BDg |
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|publisher=Naval Institute Press |
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|year=1997 |
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|isbn=0870211927}} |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|title=The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans |
|||
|editor-last1=Goldstein |
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|editor-first1=Donald M. |
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|editor-last2=Dillon |
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|editor-first2=Katherine V. |
|||
|last=Prange |
|||
|first=Gordon W. |
|||
|author-link=Gordon Prange |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC |
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|isbn=1574882228 |
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|publisher=Brassey's |
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|year=1999}} |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|last=Parillo |
|||
|first=Mark |
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|chapter=The United States in the Pacific |
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|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T0gt_RjeCrgC&pg=PA287&vq=%22The+United+States+in+the+Pacific%22&dq=%22Why+Air+Forces+Fail:+the+Anatomy+of+Defeat%22&sig=9OCPJyX_OLYNK6GW9fU90OtGBVg |
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|editor1-last=Higham |
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|editor1-first=Robin |
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|editor2-last=Harris |
|||
|editor2-first=Stephen |
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|title=Why Air Forces Fail: the Anatomy of Defeat |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T0gt_RjeCrgC |
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|publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |
|||
|year=2006}} |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|last1=Prange |
|||
|first1=Gordon William |
|||
|last2=Goldstein |
|||
|first2=Donald M. |
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|last3=Dillon |
|||
|first3=Katherine V. |
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|title=December 7, 1941: The Day the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor |
|||
|publisher=McGraw-hill |
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|year=1988 |
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|isbn=9780070506824 |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iydtAAAAIAAJ}} |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|title=Pearl Harbor 1941: The Day of Infamy |
|||
|last=Smith |
|||
|first=Carl |
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|publisher=Osprey |
|||
|year=1999 |
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|isbn=1855327988}} |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|title=The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor |
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|last=Theobold |
|||
|first=Robert Alfred |
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|publisher=Devin-Adair |
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|location=New York |
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|year=1954}} |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|title=The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June 1942 |
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|last=Willmott |
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|first=H.P. |
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|publisher=Naval Institute Press |
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|location=Annapolis, MD |
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|year=1983 |
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|isbn=0870210920}} |
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'''U.S. Government Documents''' |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|title=US Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor |
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|url=http://ww2db.com/doc.php?q=45 |
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|chapter=Document text |
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|year=1942 |
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|publisher=United States National Archives, Modern Military Branch |
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|accessdate = 2007-12-25}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|ref=CITEREFGPO1943a |
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|title=Peace and War, United States Foreign Policy 1931-1941 |
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|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/ |
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|chapter=Document text |
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|chapter-url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/Peace%20and%20War.html |
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|year=1943 |
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|place=Washington D.C. |
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|publisher=United States Government Printing Office |
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|accessdate = 2007-12-08}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|ref=CITEREFGPO1946a |
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|title=Report of the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack |
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|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_0.html |
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|chapter=Damage to United States Naval Forces and Installations as a Result of the Attack |
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|chapter-url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_2.html |
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|year=1946 |
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|place=Washington D.C. |
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|publisher=United States Government Printing Office |
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|accessdate = 2007-12-08}} |
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==== Magazine articles ==== |
|||
*{{Citation |
|||
|work=Naval History |
|||
|title=Pearl Harbor — Attack from Below |
|||
|url=http://www.usni.org/navalhistory/Articles99/Nhrodgaard.htm |
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|last=Rodgaard |
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|first=John |
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|coauthors=Peter Hsu, Carroll Lucas, and Captain Andrew Biach |
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|year=1999 |
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|month=December |
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|volume=13 |
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|issue=6}} (requires subscription)<!-- Cached copy may be available at http://216.230.103.132/navalhistory/Articles99/NHrodgaard.htm --> |
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==== Online sources ==== |
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*{{Citation |
|||
|ref=CITEREFNavSource2003 |
|||
|title=Organization of the Japanese Air Attack Units December 7, 1941 |
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|url=http://www.navsource.org/Naval/ijnaf.htm |
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|year=2003 |
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|publisher=NavSource Naval History |
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|accessdate = 2007-12-08}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|ref=CITEREFdanfs373 |
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|url=http://www.destroyerhistory.org/goldplater/danfs373.html |
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|title=USS Shaw |
|||
|publisher=destroyerhistory.org |
|||
|accessdate = 2007-12-08}} |
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</div> |
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===Further reading=== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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* [[McCollum memo]] A 1940 memo from a Naval headquarters staff officer to his superiors outlining possible provocations to Japan, which might lead to war (declassified in 1994). |
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* [[Gordon W. Prange]], ''At Dawn We Slept'' (McGraw-Hill, 1981), ''Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History'' (McGraw-Hill, 1986), and ''December 7, 1941: The Day the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor'' (McGraw-Hill, 1988). This monumental trilogy, written with collaborators Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, is considered the authoritative work on the subject. |
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* Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis, ''[http://www.navpublishing.com/index.htm The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History]'' (NavPublishing, 2004). Using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD, this book provides a detailed overview of the surprise attack that brought the United States into World War II. |
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* [[Walter Lord]], ''Day of Infamy'' (Henry Holt, 1957) is a very readable, and entirely anecdotal, re-telling of the day's events. |
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* W. J. Holmes, ''Double-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II'' (Naval Institute, 1979) contains some important material, such as Holmes' argument that, had the U.S. Navy been warned of the attack and put to sea, it would have likely resulted in an even greater disaster. |
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* Michael V. Gannon, ''Pearl Harbor Betrayed'' (Henry Holt, 2001) is a recent examination of the issues surrounding the surprise of the attack. |
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* Frederick D. Parker, ''[http://www.history.navy.mil/books/comint/ Pearl Harbor Revisited: United States Navy Communications Intelligence 1924–1941]'' (Center for Cryptologic History, 1994) contains a detailed description of what the Navy knew from intercepted and decrypted Japan's communications prior to Pearl. |
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* Henry C. Clausen and Bruce Lee, ''Pearl Harbor: Final Judgment'', (HarperCollins, 2001), an account of the secret "[[Clausen Inquiry]]" undertaken late in the war by order of Congress to Secretary of War [[Henry L. Stimson]]. |
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* [[Robert A. Theobald]], ''Final Secret of Pearl Harbor'' (Devin-Adair Pub, 1954) ISBN 0-8159-5503-0 ISBN 0-317-65928-6 Foreword by Fleet Admiral [[William F. Halsey, Jr.]] |
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* [[Albert Coady Wedemeyer|Albert C. Wedemeyer]], ''Wedemeyer Reports!'' (Henry Holt Co, 1958) ISBN 0-89275-011-1 ISBN 0-8159-7216-4 |
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* [[Hamilton Fish]], ''Tragic Deception: FDR and America's Involvement in World War II'' (Devin-Adair Pub, 1983) ISBN 0-8159-6917-1 |
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* John Toland, ''Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath'' (Berkley Reissue edition, 1986 ISBN 0-425-09040-X) is an excellent account by a Pulitzer Prize winning author, though thought by some not to back up his claims as thoroughly as expected by academic conventions. |
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* [[Robert Stinnett]], ''[http://www.pearlharbor41.com/ Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor]'' (Free Press, 1999) A study of the Freedom of Information Act documents that led Congress to direct clearance of Kimmel and Short. ISBN 0-7432-0129-9 |
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* [[Edward L. Beach, Jr.|Edward L. Beach]], ''Scapegoats: A Defense of Kimmel and Short at Pearl Harbor''ISBN 1-55750-059-2 |
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*Andrew Krepinevich, {{PDFlink|[http://www.csbaonline.org/4Publications/Archive/R.20020225.Lighting_the_Path_/R.20020225.Lighting_the_Path_.pdf]|186 KB}} ''(Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments)'' contains a passage regarding the Yarnell attack, as well as reference citations. |
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* Roberta Wohlstetter, ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'', (Stanford University Press: 1962). Regarded by many as the most important work in the attempt to understand the intelligence failure at Pearl Harbor. Her introduction and analysis of the concept of "noise" persists in understanding intelligence failures. |
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* John Hughes-Wilson, ''Military Intelligence Blunders and Cover-Ups''. Robinson, 1999 (revised 2004). Contains a brief but insightful chapter on the particular intelligence failures, and broader overview of what causes them. |
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*{{cite book |
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| last = Horn |
|||
| first = Steve |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| year = 2005 |
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| chapter = |
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| title = The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor: Operation K And Other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II |
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| publisher = Naval Institute Press |
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| location = |
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| isbn = 1-59114-388-8 |
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}} |
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* Seki, Eiji. (2006). [http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/?db_name=uhpress&page=shop/flypage&product_id=4475&PHPSESSID=75b7d372eb6f6c4d747ec0a150c42ead ''Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940.''] London: [[Global Oriental]]. ISBN 1-905-24628-5; ISBN 978-1-905-24628-1 (cloth) Reprinted by [[University of Hawaii Press]], Honolulu, 2007. Previously announced as ''Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation''. |
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* Daniel Madsen, ''Resurrection-Salvaging the Battle Fleet at Pearl Harbor''. U.S. Naval Institute Press. 2003. Highly readable and thoroughly researched account of the aftermath of the attack and the salvage efforts from December 8, 1941 through early 1944. |
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</div> |
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==External links== |
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{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-01-12|Pearl_Harbor(part1of2).ogg|Pearl_Harbor(part2of2).ogg|}} |
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{{Commonscat|Pearl Harbor attack}} |
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*[http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/18arizona/18arizona.htm ''"Remembering Pearl Harbor:The USS Arizona Memorial",'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan] |
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===Accounts=== |
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* [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/Guard-US/ch7.htm Guarding The United States And Its Outposts] Official U.S. Army history of Pearl Harbor |
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* [http://starbulletin.com/1999/09/13/special/index.html War comes to Hawaii] ''Honolulu Star-Bulletin'', Monday, September 13, 1999 |
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===Media=== |
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* [http://www.archive.org/download/NewsPara1942/NewsPara1942.avi Video of first Newsreel from December 23, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor] |
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===Historic documents=== |
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* [http://ww2db.com/doc.php?q=45 WW2DB: US Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor] |
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* [http://www.worldwar-two.net/acontecimentos/130/ Second World War — USA Declaration of War on Japan.] |
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* [http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/monos/097/index.html Collection of extensive Japanese preparation military documents] |
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[[Category:Asia and the Pacific 1941-42]] |
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[[Category:Attack on Pearl Harbor| ]] |
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[[Category:Naval battles involving Japan]] |
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[[Category:Naval battles involving the United States]] |
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[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]] |
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[[Category:History of Hawaii]] |
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[[Category:History of the United States (1918–1945)]] |
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[[Category:Japanese American history]] |
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[[Category:Military history of the United States 1900-1999]] |
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[[Category:World War II Pacific Theatre]] |
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Revision as of 20:16, 9 July 2009
Attack on Pearl Harbor | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Pacific Theater of World War II | |||||||
![]() Photograph from a Japanese aircraft of Pearl Harbor including Battleship Row at the beginning of the attack. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the USS West Virginia | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
![]() |
![]() | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
![]() ![]() |
![]() ![]() | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
8 battleships, 8 cruisers, 30 destroyers, 4 submarines, 49 other ships,[1] ~390 aircraft |
Mobile Unit: 6 aircraft carriers, 2 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 9 destroyers, 8 tankers, 23 fleet submarines, 5 midget submarines, 414 aircraft | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
4 battleships sunk, 4 battleships damaged including 1 run aground 2 destroyers sunk, 1 damaged 1 other ship sunk, 3 damaged 3 cruisers damaged[2] 188 aircraft destroyed, 155 aircraft damaged, 2,345 military and 57 civilians killed, 1,247 military and 35 civilians wounded[3][4] |
4 midget submarines sunk, 1 midget submarine run aground, 29 aircraft destroyed, 55 airmen, 9 submariners killed and 1 captured[5] |
The attack on Pearl Harbor (or Hawaii Operation, Operation Z, as it was called by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters)[6] was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese navy against the United States' naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of Sunday, December 7, 1941, later resulting in the United States becoming militarily involved in World War II. It was intended as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from influencing the war Japan was planning to wage in Southeast Asia against Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. The attack consisted of two aerial attack waves totaling 353[7] aircraft, launched from six Japanese aircraft carriers.
The attack sank four U.S. Navy battleships (two of which were raised and returned to service late in the war) and damaged four more. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, and one minelayer, destroyed 188 aircraft, and caused personnel losses of 2,402 killed and 1,282 wounded. The power station, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section) were not hit. Japanese losses were minimal, at 29 aircraft and four midget submarines, with 65 servicemen killed or wounded.
The attack was a major engagement of World War II. It occurred before a formal declaration of war and before the last part of a 14-part message was delivered to the State Department in Washington, D.C. The Japanese Embassy in Washington had been instructed to deliver it immediately prior to the scheduled time of the attack in Hawaii. The attack, and especially the surprise nature of it, were both factors in changing U.S. public opinion from the isolationist position of the mid-1930s to support for direct participation in the war. Germany's prompt declaration of war, unforced by any treaty commitment to Japan, quickly brought the US into the European Theater as well. Despite numerous historical precedents of unannounced military action, the lack of any formal declaration prior to the attack led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim "December 7th, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy".
Background to conflict
The strike was intended to neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and hence protect Japan's advance into Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, where Japan sought access to natural resources such as oil and rubber. Both the U.S. and Japan held long-standing contingency plans for war in the Pacific which were continuously updated as tensions between the two countries steadily increased during the 1930s, with the Japanese expansion into Manchuria and French Indochina greeted by steadily increased levels of embargoes and sanctions from the United States and other nations.
In 1940, under the authority granted by the Export Control Act, the U.S. halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act.[8] The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil,[9][10] and likely to be considered a provocation by Japan.
Japanese planning staff studied the 1940 British attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively. It was of great use to them when planning their attack on US naval forces in Pearl Harbor.[11][12]
Following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the fall of France, the U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in the Summer of 1941, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.[13] President Franklin D. Roosevelt had earlier moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii and ordered a military buildup in the Philippines in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. As the Japanese high command was (mistakenly)[14] certain any attack on the United Kingdom's Southeast Asian colonies would bring the U.S. into the war,[14] a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way[14] for Japan to avoid U.S. naval interference. An invasion of the Philippines was also considered to be necessary by Japanese war plans, while for the U.S., reconquest of the islands had been a given of War Plan Orange in the interwar years.
War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all out war in 1937. In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in both an effort to control supplies reaching China, and as a first step to improve her access to resources in Southeast Asia. This move prompted an American embargo on oil exports to Japan, which in turn caused the Japanese to initiate their planned takeover of oil production in the Dutch East Indies.[15] Furthermore, the transfer of the U.S. Pacific Fleet from its previous base in San Diego to its new base in Pearl Harbor was seen by the Japanese military as the U.S. readying itself for a potential conflict between the two countries.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pearl_Harbor_looking_southwest-Oct41.jpg/220px-Pearl_Harbor_looking_southwest-Oct41.jpg)
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area" (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun in very early 1941, under the auspices of Admiral Yamamoto, then commanding Japan's Combined Fleet.[16] He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command.[17] Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Captain Minoru Genda. Over the next several months, pilots trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence collected. Despite these preparations, actual approval of the attack plan was not issued by Emperor Hirohito until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences to consider the matter.[18] Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note" would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea."[19] By late 1941 U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on multiple occasions, with hostilities between the U.S. and Japan expected by many observers. U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target in any war with Japan, instead expecting the Philippines to be attacked first due to the threat it posed to sea lanes to the south[20] and the erroneous belief that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.[21]
Objectives
The attack had several major aims. First, it was supposed to destroy American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies. Second, it was a means to buy time for Japan to consolidate her position and increase her naval strength, before the shipbuilding of the Vinson-Walsh Act erased any chance of victory.[22][23] Finally, it was intended as a blow against American morale, which might discourage further fighting and enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference.[22]
Making battleships the main target was a means of striking at morale, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time.[22] Because both Japanese and American strategic thinking and doctrine was derived from the work of Captain Alfred Mahan,[24] which held battleships were decisive in naval warfare,[25] it was also a means of striking at the fighting power of the Pacific Fleet; if it succeeded, it meant the ultimate Pacific battle ("decisive battle", in Japanese Navy thinking), which would inevitably be fought by battleships, would be postponed, if not prevented entirely. With that in mind, Yamamoto intended the Pacific Fleet should be sought and attacked "wherever it might be found in the Pacific".[26] A 14 November 1941 tabletop exercise suggested alert defenders could sink two carriers and damage two more, even with providential weather,[27] which amounted to all the strength Naval General Staff had wanted to allocate to the operation.[28] Nevertheless, Yamamoto pressed ahead.
Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the Navy Yard, oil tank farms, and Submarine Base, could safely be ignored, since the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.[29]
Approach and attack
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/PearlHarborCarrierChart.jpg/220px-PearlHarborCarrierChart.jpg)
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers departed northern Japan en route to a position to northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor. In all, 405 aircraft were intended to be used: 360 for the two attack waves, 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to finish whatever tasks remained. The first wave contained the bulk of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly torpedoes. The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if either were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). Dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to counterattack the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over US airfields.
Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers were sent to scout over Oahu and report on enemy fleet composition and location. Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Kido Butai and Niihau, in order to prevent the task force from being caught by a surprise counterattack.[30]
Submarines
Fleet submarines I-16, I-18, I-20, I-22, and I-24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu.[31] The five I-boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941,[32] coming to 10 nm (19 km) off the mouth of Pearl Harbor[33] and launched their charges, at about 01:00 December 7.[34] At 03:42[35] Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper USS Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted destroyer USS Ward.[36] That midget probably entered Pearl Harbor, but Ward sank another at 06:37[36][37] in the first American shots fired in World War II. A midget on the north side of Ford Island missed Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08:43.[36]
A third midget submarine grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8.[38] Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore from her and became the first Japanese prisoner of war.[39] A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes.[40] A United States Naval Institute analysis of photographs from the attack conducted in 1999 indicated a midget may have successfully fired a torpedo into USS West Virginia. Japanese forces received a radio communications from a midget submarine at 00:41 December 8 claiming damage to one or more large war vessels inside Pearl Harbor.[41] That submarine's final disposition is unknown[42] but it did not return to its carrier sub.[43]
Japanese declaration of war
While the attack ultimately took place before a formal declaration of war by Japan, Admiral Yamamoto originally stipulated the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States he considered the peace negotiations at an end.[44] In this way, the Japanese tried both to uphold the conventions of war as well as achieving surprise. Despite these intentions, the attack had already begun when the 5,000-word notification was delivered. Tokyo transmitted the message to the Japanese embassy (in two blocks), which ultimately took too long transcribing the message to deliver it in time, while U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of it hours[45] before the Japanese embassy was scheduled to deliver it. While sometimes described as a declaration of war, "this dispatch neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations".[46] The declaration of war was printed in the front page of Japanese newspapers in the evening edition on December 8.[47]
First wave
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Pearlmap1.png/250px-Pearlmap1.png)
Top:
A. Ford Island NAS B. Hickam Field C. Bellows Field D. Wheeler Field
E. Kaneohe NAS F. Ewa MCAS R-1. Opana Radar Station R-2. Kawailoa RS R-3. Kaaawa RS
G. Haleiwa H. Kahuku I. Wahiawa J. Kaneohe K. Honolulu
0. B-17s from mainland 1. First strike group 1-1. Level bombers 1-2. Torpedo bombers 1-3. Dive bombers 2. Second strike group 2-1. Level bombers 2-1F. Fighters 2-2. Dive bombers
Bottom:
A. Wake Island B. Midway Islands C. Johnston Island D. Hawaii
D-1. Oʻahu 1. USS Lexington 2. USS Enterprise 3. First Air Fleet
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Pearlmap2.png/250px-Pearlmap2.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Phdepth.png)
1: USS California
2: USS Maryland
3: USS Oklahoma
4: USS Tennessee
5: USS West Virginia
6: USS Arizona
7: USS Nevada
8: USS Pennsylvania
9: Ford Island NAS
10: Hickam field
Ignored infrastructure targets:
A: Oil storage tanks
B:CINCPAC headquarters building
C: Submarine base
D: Navy Yard
The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oʻahu, commanded by Captain Mitsuo Fuchida. Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties.[30] It included:[48]
- 1st Group (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)[49]
- 50 Nakajima B5N bombers armed with 800 kg (1760 lb) armor piercing bombs, organized in four sections
- 40 B5N bombers armed with Type 91 torpedoes, also in four sections
- 2nd Group — (targets: Ford Island and Wheeler Field)
- 54 Aichi D3A dive bombers armed with Template:Auto lb general purpose bombs
- 3rd Group — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)
- 45 Mitsubishi A6M fighters for air control and strafing[48]
As the first wave approached Oʻahu a U.S. Army SCR-270 radar at Opana Point near the island's northern tip (a post not yet operational, having been in training mode for months) detected them and called in a warning. Although the operators reported a target echo larger than anything they had ever seen, an untrained officer at the new and only partially activated Intercept Center, Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, presumed the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers was the source. The direction from which the aircraft were coming was close (only a few degrees separated the two inbound courses),[50] while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar;[51] they neglected to tell Tyler of its size,[52] while Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell them the B-17s were due[52] (even though it was widely known).[52]
Several U.S. aircraft were shot down as the first wave approached land, and one at least radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked at Pearl and specific orders to commence operations before they actually struck his command.
The air portion of the attack on Pearl Harbor began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3:18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe.[53] A total of 353[7] Japanese planes in two waves reached Oʻahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oʻahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Force fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Air Corps' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P-36 Hawks and P-40 Warhawks.[54]
Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire prompting bleary eyed men into dressing as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill.",[55] was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to deter sabotage,[56] guns unmanned (none of the Navy's 5"/38s and only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action).[56] Despite this and low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the battle.[57] Ensign Joe Taussig got his ship, USS Nevada, underway from dead cold during the attack. One of the destroyers, USS Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all Ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for four days before her commanding officer managed to get aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding USS West Virginia (Kimmel's flagship), led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb hit to USS Tennessee, moored alongside.
Gallantry was widespread. In all, 14 officers and sailors were awarded the Medal of Honor. A special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
Second wave composition
The second wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki.[48] Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties.[30] This wave and its targets comprised:[48]
- 1st Group — 54 B5Ns armed with Template:Auto lb and Template:Auto lb general purpose bombs[49]
- 27 B5Ns — aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point
- 27 B5N — hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field
- 2nd Group (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers)
- 81 D3As armed with Template:Auto lb general purpose bombs, in four sections
- 3rd Group — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickham Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)
- 36 A6Ms for defense and strafing
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāneʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously, from several directions.
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,386 Americans died (55 were civilians, most killed by unexploded American anti-aircraft shells landing in civilian areas), a further 1,139 wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships.[3][4]
Of the American fatalities, nearly half of the total were due to the explosion of USS Arizona's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 40 cm (16 in.) shell.[58] Admiral Isaac C. Kidd and Arizona Captain Franklin Van Valkenburgh were vaporized on the bridge.
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire forward, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way, sustaining more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs as she was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.
USS California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship USS Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. USS West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. USS Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. USS Maryland was hit by two of the converted 40 cm shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser USS Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer USS Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and so the ships were burned out. The light cruiser USS Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser USS Honolulu was damaged but remained in service. The destroyer USS Cassin capsized, and destroyer USS Downes was heavily damaged. The repair vessel USS Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender USS Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer USS Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.[59]
Of the 402[7] American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged,[7] 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from USS Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.
Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the action, and one was captured. Of Japan's 414[48] available planes, 29 were lost during the battle[60] (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second),[61] with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.
Possible third wave
Several Japanese junior officers, including Mitsuo Fuchida and Minoru Genda, the chief architect of the attack, urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor's fuel and torpedo[62] storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible.[63] Military historians have suggested the destruction of these would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than loss of its battleships.[64] If they had been wiped out, "serious [American] operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year."[65] Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:
- American anti-aircraft performance had improved considerably during the second strike, and two thirds of Japan's losses were incurred during the second wave.[66] Nagumo felt if he launched a third strike, he would be risking three quarters of the Combined Fleet's strength to wipe out the remaining targets (which included the facilities) while suffering higher aircraft losses.[66]
- The location of the American carriers remained unknown. In addition, the Admiral was concerned his force was now within range of American land-based bombers.[66] Nagumo was uncertain whether the U.S. had enough surviving planes remaining on Hawaii to launch an attack against his carriers.[67]
- A third wave would have required substantial preparation and turnaround time, and would have meant returning planes would have had to land at night. At the time, only the Royal Navy had developed night carrier techniques, so this was a substantial risk.
- The task force's fuel situation did not permit him to remain in waters north of Pearl Harbor much longer, since he was at the very limits of logistical support. To do so risked running unacceptably low on fuel, perhaps even having to abandon destroyers en route home.[68]
- He believed the second strike had essentially satisfied the main objective of his mission — the neutralization of the Pacific Fleet — and did not wish to risk further losses.[69] Moreover, it was Japanese Navy practice to prefer the conservation of strength over the total destruction of the enemy.[70]
At a conference aboard Yamato the following morning, Yamamoto initially supported Nagumo.[69] In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and oil depots meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.[71]
Gallery
-
A Japanese Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" fighter airplane of the second wave takes off from the aircraft carrier Akagi on the morning of December 7, 1941.
-
Zeroes of the second wave preparing to take off from Shokaku for Pearl Harbor
-
A Japanese Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bomber takes off from Shokaku.
-
Japanese Aichi D3A1 "Val" dive bombers of the second wave preparing to take off. Aircraft carrier Soryu in the background.
-
Battleship USS California sinking
-
Battleship USS Arizona explodes.
-
Destroyer USS Shaw exploding after her forward magazine was detonated
-
Battleship USS Nevada attempting to escape from the harbor.
-
Battleship USS West Virginia took two aerial bombs, both duds, and seven torpedo hits, one of which may have come from a midget submarine.
-
A destroyed B-17 after the attack on Hickam Field.
-
Hangar in Ford Island burns
-
Aftermath: USS West Virginia (severely damaged), USS Tennessee (damaged), and the USS Arizona (sunk).
Salvage
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/NH64486_Wallin_aboard_BB-44.jpg/220px-NH64486_Wallin_aboard_BB-44.jpg)
After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately retained to lead salvage operations.[72]
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships which could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl and on the mainland for extensive repair.
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 hours under water.[73] Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired. Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk,[74] with Arizona becoming a war memorial.
Aftermath
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/USS_Downes_%28DD-375%29%2C_USS_Cassin_%28DD-372%29_and_USS_Pennsylvania_%28BB-38%29_in_Dry_Dock_No._1_at_the_Pearl_Harbor_Naval_Shipyard%2C_7_December_1941_%28306533%29.jpg/220px-USS_Downes_%28DD-375%29%2C_USS_Cassin_%28DD-372%29_and_USS_Pennsylvania_%28BB-38%29_in_Dry_Dock_No._1_at_the_Pearl_Harbor_Naval_Shipyard%2C_7_December_1941_%28306533%29.jpg)
In the wake of the attack, 16 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Crosses, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Stars were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor.[75]
In Europe, Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy subsequently declared war on the United States immediately after they began operations against a fellow Axis member, with Hitler stating in a delivered speech:
“The fact that the Japanese Government, which has been negotiating for years with this man [Franklin D. Roosevelt], has at last become tired of being mocked by him in such an unworthy way, fills us all, the German people, and all other decent people in the world, with deep satisfaction ... Germany and Italy have been finally compelled, in view of this, and in loyalty to the Tripartite Pact, to carry on the struggle against the U.S.A. and England jointly and side by side with Japan for the defense and thus for the maintenance of the liberty and independence of their nations and empires ... As a consequence of the further extension of President Roosevelt's policy, which is aimed at unrestricted world domination and dictatorship, the U.S.A. together with England have not hesitated from using any means to dispute the rights of the German, Italian and Japanese nations to the basis of their natural existence ... Not only because we are the ally of Japan, but also because Germany and Italy have enough insight and strength to comprehend that, in these historic times, the existence or non-existence of the nations, is being decided perhaps forever.”
Though the attack inflicted large-scale destruction on US vessels and aircraft, it did not affect Pearl Harbor's fuel storage, maintenance, submarine, and intelligence facilities.
The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Three days later, the Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked".[76]
Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack, otherwise the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or so (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines — the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. Five of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, but their slow speed limited their deployment, serving mainly in shore bombardment roles. A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened.
Ultimately, targets not on Genda's list, such as the submarine base and the old headquarters building, proved more important than any battleship. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy's heavy ships and brought Japan's economy to a standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials. Also, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force's success.
Strategic Implications
Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war."[77]
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Isoroku Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon 'charging' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange).[14] The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog" in 1940, which emphasized keeping the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.[78]
Controversy
There has been ongoing controversy due to allegations made by conspiracy theorists, and former armed forces personnel that some members of the Roosevelt administration had advance knowledge of the attack, and that this was purposefully ignored in order to gain public and Congressional support for America entering the war on the side of the British Empire and her allies. See Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate for more information.
Media
Films and books
Fiction
- The Final Countdown is a movie set around Pearl Harbor, in which the nuclear aircraft carrier, USS Nimitz, from 1980 is time-warped back to December 6, 1941, one day before the attack on the base.
- From Here to Eternity by James Jones. The attack on Pearl Harbor plays a crucial role for Robert E. Lee Prewitt.
Historical fiction
- Hawai Middouei daikaikusen: Taiheiyo no arashi (Hawaii-Midway Battle of the Sea and Sky: Storm in the Pacific Ocean) was produced by the Japanese studio Toho Company Ltd. in 1960 telling the story of Japanese airmen who served in the Pearl Harbor Raid and Battle of Midway. An edited version dubbed into English as I Bombed Pearl Harbor was given a US release in 1961.
- Tora! Tora! Tora! is a movie about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Many consider this to be the most faithful movie re-telling of the attack as it deals with many aspects of the battle with attention to historical fact. Tora! Tora! Tora! reuses some special effects footage from the Toho film Storm in the Pacific.
- Pearl Harbor is the title of a 2001 film about the 1941 attack. The film is a love story rather than an accurate chronicle of the event, although some of the events portrayed actually took place. A number of the shipboard scenes were filmed on the USS Lexington in Corpus Christi, Texas. The film is directed by Michael Bay and stars Ben Affleck, Josh Hartnett, Cuba Gooding Jr. and Kate Beckinsale.
- December 7th, directed by John Ford for the U.S. Navy in 1943, is a film that recreates the attacks of the Japanese forces. Other documentaries, as well as media stories, have mistakenly replayed images from this film, passing them off as authentic footage of the actual Pearl Harbor attack.[79]
Non-fiction/historical
- Day of Infamy by Walter Lord was one of the most popular nonfiction accounts of the attack on Pearl Harbor.[80]
- At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor by Gordon W. Prange is an extremely comprehensive account of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack. It is a balanced account that gives both the perspective of the Japanese and United States. Prange spent 37 years researching the book by studying documents about Pearl Harbor and interviewing surviving participants to attempt the most exhaustive truth about what happened to bring the Japanese to attack the United States at Pearl Harbor, why the United States intelligence failed to predict the attack, and why a peace agreement was not attained. The Village said about At Dawn We Slept, "By far the most exhaustive and complete account we are likely to have of exactly what happened and how and why."
- The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History by Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis is a careful recreation of the "Day of Infamy" using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD. From the early stages of Japanese planning, through the attack on Battleship Row, to the salvage of the U.S. Pacific fleet, this book provides a detailed overview of the attack.
- Pearl Harbor Countdown: Admiral James O. Richardson by Skipper Steely is an insightful and detailed account of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor disaster. Through his comprehensive treatment of the life and times of Admiral James O. Richardson, Steely explores four decades of American foreign policy, traditional military practice, U.S. intelligence, and the administrative side of the military, exposing the largely untold story of the events leading up to the Japanese attack.
Alternate history
- Days of Infamy is a novel by Harry Turtledove in which the Japanese attack on Hawaii is not limited to a strike on Pearl Harbor, but is instead a full-scale invasion and eventual occupation after U.S. forces are driven off the islands (something that one of the key planners of the attack, Commander Minoru Genda wanted but the higher-ups rejected). The many viewpoint characters (a Turtledove trademark) are drawn from Hawaiian civilians (both white and Japanese) as well as soldiers and sailors from both Japan and the USA. Turtledove has to date written one sequel, The End of the Beginning.
- In the computer game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2, Pearl Harbor is the location of a Soviet invasion during World War III. In the first game of the Red Alert series, Adolf Hitler was removed from history by Einstein’s ‘Chronosphere’ system, preventing the Holocaust and presumably the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. A general in the game jokes, “as if someone could mount a successful attack there.” Interestingly enough, the Arizona Memorial was still included in the game, even though the ship would never have been destroyed during the game's alternate timeline.
- The airstrike and Hawaii-invasion premise of Days of Infamy was earlier used in the first episode of the anime OVA series Konpeki no Kantai. In the episode, Japan carries out the attack in the early hours of the morning, having perfected night carrier operations. The raid begins with a flare drop by pathfinders[disambiguation needed]. The entire base (including the repair facilities) and a number of supply ships in the harbor are destroyed by daybreak. As for the main body of the Pacific Fleet, the Combined Fleet regroups and annihilates them while they return to Pearl Harbor. The episode, which is divided up into three stages in the series' game version, ends with Japanese troops landing at all islands in Hawaii.
See also
- Niihau Incident
- Attacks on North America during World War II
- List of United States Navy losses in World War II
- List of United States Navy ships present at Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941
- Pearl Harbor
- Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate
- Pearl Harbor Survivors Association
- USS Arizona Memorial
- Day of Deceit: The Truth about FDR and Pearl Harbor
- Tora! Tora! Tora!
- In Defense of Internment
References
Notes
- ^ Ships present at Pearl Harbor 0800 December 7, 1941 US Navy Historical Center
- ^ CinCP report of damage to ships in Pearl Harbor from www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar. Unless otherwise stated, all vessels listed were salvageable.
- ^ a b Conn 2000, p. 194 (Navy and Marines: 2,117 killed in action or died of wounds, 779 wounded; Army 215 killed in action or died of wounds, 360 wounded).
- ^ a b GPO 1946, pp. 64–65
- ^ Martin Gilbert, The Second World War(1989) pg. 272
- ^ Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, Proceedings, 81 (December 1955), pp.1315-1331
- ^ a b c d Parillo 2006, p. 288
- ^ GPO 1943, p. 96 After it was announced in September iron and steel scrap export would also be prohibited, Japanese Ambassador Horinouchi protested to Secretary Hull on October 8, 1940 warning this might be considered an "unfriendly act".
- ^ GPO 1943, p. 94
- ^ Toland, Japan's War.
- ^ "The Dorn report did not state with certainty that Kimmel and Short knew about Taranto. There is, however, no doubt that they did know, as did the Japanese. Lt. Cdr. Takeshi Naito, the assistance naval attaché to Berlin, flew to Taranto to investigate the attack first hand, and Naito subsequently had a lenghty conversation with Cdr. Mitsuo Fuchida about his observations. Fichida led the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941." Kimmel, Short, and Pearl Harbor: The Final Report Revealed. By Frederic L. Borch, Daniel Martinez Contributor Donald M. Goldstein Published by Naval Institute Press, 2005, pp. 53-54. ISBN 1591140900
- ^ "A torpedo bomber needed a long, level flight, and when released, its conventional torpedo would plunge nearly a hundred feet deep before swerving upward to strike a hull. Pearl Harbor deep averages 42 feet. But the Japanese borrowed an idea from the British carrier-based torpedo raid on the Italian naval base of Taranto. They fashioned auxiliary wooden tail fins to keep the torpedoes horizontal, so they would dive to only 35 feet, and they added a break-away "nosecone" of soft wood to cushion the impact with the surface of the water." Hellions of the Deep: The Development of American Torpedoes in World War II. By Robert Gannon Published by Penn State Press, 1996, page 49. ISBN 027101508X
- ^ GPO 1943, p. 125
- ^ a b c d Peattie 1997
- ^ This was mainly a Japanese Navy preference; the Japanese Army would have chosen to attack the Soviet Union. Peattie 1997; Coox, Kobun.
- ^ Gailey 1995, p. 68
- ^ Gailey 1995, p. 70
- ^ Peter Wetzler, Hirohito and War, 1998, p.39
- ^ Bix, Herbert. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2000, p.417, citing the Sugiyama memo)
- ^ Noted by Arthur MacArthur[disambiguation needed] in the 1890s. Manchester, William. American Caesar.
- ^ Peattie & Evans, Kaigun
- ^ a b c Willmott, Barrier and the Javelin, p.14.
- ^ Fukudome, Shigeru. Shikan: Shinjuwan Kogeki (Tokyo, 1955), p.150.
- ^ Miller, Edward S. War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945 (Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute Press,1991).
- ^ Mahan, Alfred T. The Influence of Seapower on History, 1660–1783 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1918, reprinted 1949), passim.
- ^ quoting Fukudome interview, in Prange et al., At Dawn We Slept (New York: Penguin, 1991), p.15.
- ^ Prange et al., At Dawn We Slept, pp.228 & 230.
- ^ Prange et al., At Dawn We Slept.
- ^ Willmott, Barrier and the Javelin
- ^ a b c Order of Battle - Pearl Harbor - December 7, 1941
- ^ Stewart, A.J., Lieutenant Commander, USN. "Those Mysterious Midgets", United States Naval Institute Proceedings, December 1974, p.56
- ^ Stewart, p.56
- ^ Goldstein & Dillon 2000, p. 274
- ^ Stewart, "Those Mysterious Midgets", p.57
- ^ Smith 1999, p. 36
- ^ a b c Stewart, "Those Mysterious Midgets", p.58
- ^ She was located by a University of Hawaii research submersible on August 28, 2002 in 400 meters of water, five miles outside the harbor."Japanese Midget Submarine". Retrieved 2008-09-07.
- ^ Stewart, pp.59-61
- ^ Sakamaki's unexpected survival was despised by many Japanese, who referred to his dead companions as "The Nine Young Gods."
- ^ Stewart, "Those Mysterious Midgets", p.61-2
- ^ Ofstie, R.A., Rear Admiral, USN. The Campaigns of the Pacific War (United States Government Printing Office, 1946), p.19
- ^ Rodgaard 1999
- ^ Mochitsura Hashimoto (1954). Sunk. p. 31.
- ^ Calvocoressi et al., The Penguin History of the Second World War, p.952
- ^ Toland, Infamy.
- ^ Prange, Goldstein & Dillon 1988, p. 58
- ^ Declaration of War handout
- ^ a b c d e AIRCRAFT ATTACK ORGANIZATION The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, Planning and Execution. First wave: 189 planes, 50 Kates w/bombs, 40 Kates with torpedoes, 54 Vals, 45 Zekes Second wave: 171 planes, 54 Kates w/bombs, 81 Vals, 36 Zekes. The Combat Air Patrol over the carriers alternated 18 plane shifts every two hours with 18 more ready for takeoff on the flight decks and an additional 18 ready on hangar decks.
- ^ Prange 1999, p. 98
- ^ Prange et al., At Dawn We Slept, p.500.
- ^ a b c Prange et al., At Dawn We Slept, p.501.
- ^ Prange 1999, p. 174
- ^ In the twenty-five sorties flown, USAF Historical Study No.85 credits six pilots with ten planes destroyed: 1st Lt Lewis M. Sanders (P-36) and 2nd Lts Philip M Rasmussen (P-36), Gordon H. Sterling Jr. (P-36, killed in action), Harry W. Brown (P-36), Kenneth M. Taylor (P-40, 2), and George S. Welch (P-40, 4). Three of the P-36 kills were not verified by the Japanese and may have been shot down by naval anti-aircraft fire.
- ^ Odd though it may sound, "not" is correct, in keeping with standard Navy telegraphic practice. This was confirmed by Beloite and Beloite after years of research and debate.
- ^ a b Parillo 2006, p. 293
- ^ The gunners that did get in action scored most of the victories against Japanese aircraft that morning, including the first of the attack, by Tautog, and Dorie Miller's Navy Cross-worthy effort. Miller was an African-American cook aboard West Virginia who took over an unattended anti-aircraft gun on which he had no training. He was the first African-American sailor to be awarded the Navy Cross.
- ^ The wreck has become a memorial to those lost that day, most of whom remain within the ship. She continues to leak small amounts of fuel oil, over 60 years after the attack.
- ^ USS Shaw (DD-373)
- ^ Ofstie 1946, p. 18
- ^ USAAF pilots of the 46th and 47th Pursuit Squadrons, 15th Pursuit Group, claim to have destroyed 10.
- ^ In the event, loss of these might have been a net benefit to the U.S. Blair, passim.
- ^ Gailey 1997, p. 68
- ^ Willmott, Barrier and the Javelin; Blair, Silent Victory.
- ^ Gailey 1997, pp. 97–98
- ^ a b c Hoyt 2000, p. 190
- ^ Hoyt 2000, p. 191
- ^ Prange 1999
- ^ a b Gailey 1997, p. 97
- ^ Willmott, p.16.
- ^ Gailey 1997, p. 98
- ^ Commander Edward Ellsberg was ordered to Massawa as his replacement, to assist the British in clearing scuttled Italian and German ships. This arguably delayed by several months British hopes for a useful port on the Red Sea. Commander Edward Ellsberg, O.B.E. Under the Red Sea Sun (Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1946).
- ^ Raymer, E.C: "Descent Into Darkness", Presidio Press, 1996.
- ^ Post-attack ship salvage 1942-1944
- ^ =Pearl Harbor 1941=Osprey Campaign Series #62
- ^ Churchill, Winston (2001). "December 1941". The Churchill War Papers: The Ever-Widening War. Vol. Volume 3: 1941. London, New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 1593–1594. ISBN 0393019594.
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- ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
- ^
History News Network (2001-06-10). "CNN's Pearl Harbor Mistake". History News Network. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
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- ^ Walter Lord, Day of Infamy (Henry Holt and Co., 1957. ASIN: B002A503FA; Holt Paperbacks, 60th ed. 2001, ISBN 0805068031, ISBN 978-0805068030)
Bibliography
Books
- Conn, Stetson; Fairchild, Byron; Engelman, Rose C. (2000), "7 — The Attack on Pearl Harbor", Guarding the United States and Its Outposts, Washington D.C.: Center of Military History United States Army
- Gailey, Harry A. (1997), War in the Pacific: From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay, Presidio, ISBN 0891416161
- Hoyt, Edwin P. (2000), Pearl Harbor, G. K. Hall, ISBN 0783893035
- Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
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- Ofstie, Ralph, A., RADM USN, Naval Analysis Division, United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific) (1946), The Campaigns of the Pacific War, United States Government Printing Office
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Peattie, David C.; Evans (1997), Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 0870211927
- Prange, Gordon W. (1999), Goldstein, Donald M.; Dillon, Katherine V. (eds.), The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans, Brassey's, ISBN 1574882228
- Parillo, Mark (2006), "The United States in the Pacific", in Higham, Robin; Harris, Stephen (eds.), Why Air Forces Fail: the Anatomy of Defeat, The University Press of Kentucky
- Prange, Gordon William; Goldstein, Donald M.; Dillon, Katherine V. (1988), December 7, 1941: The Day the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor, McGraw-hill, ISBN 9780070506824
- Smith, Carl (1999), Pearl Harbor 1941: The Day of Infamy, Osprey, ISBN 1855327988
- Theobold, Robert Alfred (1954), The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor, New York: Devin-Adair
- Willmott, H.P. (1983), The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June 1942, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 0870210920
U.S. Government Documents
- "Document text", US Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor, United States National Archives, Modern Military Branch, 1942, retrieved 2007-12-25
- "Document text", Peace and War, United States Foreign Policy 1931-1941, Washington D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1943, retrieved 2007-12-08
- "Damage to United States Naval Forces and Installations as a Result of the Attack", Report of the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack, Washington D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1946, retrieved 2007-12-08
Magazine articles
- Rodgaard, John (1999), "Pearl Harbor — Attack from Below", Naval History, vol. 13, no. 6
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Online sources
- Organization of the Japanese Air Attack Units December 7, 1941, NavSource Naval History, 2003, retrieved 2007-12-08
- USS Shaw, destroyerhistory.org, retrieved 2007-12-08
Further reading
- McCollum memo A 1940 memo from a Naval headquarters staff officer to his superiors outlining possible provocations to Japan, which might lead to war (declassified in 1994).
- Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept (McGraw-Hill, 1981), Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History (McGraw-Hill, 1986), and December 7, 1941: The Day the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor (McGraw-Hill, 1988). This monumental trilogy, written with collaborators Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, is considered the authoritative work on the subject.
- Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis, The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History (NavPublishing, 2004). Using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD, this book provides a detailed overview of the surprise attack that brought the United States into World War II.
- Walter Lord, Day of Infamy (Henry Holt, 1957) is a very readable, and entirely anecdotal, re-telling of the day's events.
- W. J. Holmes, Double-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II (Naval Institute, 1979) contains some important material, such as Holmes' argument that, had the U.S. Navy been warned of the attack and put to sea, it would have likely resulted in an even greater disaster.
- Michael V. Gannon, Pearl Harbor Betrayed (Henry Holt, 2001) is a recent examination of the issues surrounding the surprise of the attack.
- Frederick D. Parker, Pearl Harbor Revisited: United States Navy Communications Intelligence 1924–1941 (Center for Cryptologic History, 1994) contains a detailed description of what the Navy knew from intercepted and decrypted Japan's communications prior to Pearl.
- Henry C. Clausen and Bruce Lee, Pearl Harbor: Final Judgment, (HarperCollins, 2001), an account of the secret "Clausen Inquiry" undertaken late in the war by order of Congress to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson.
- Robert A. Theobald, Final Secret of Pearl Harbor (Devin-Adair Pub, 1954) ISBN 0-8159-5503-0 ISBN 0-317-65928-6 Foreword by Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
- Albert C. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports! (Henry Holt Co, 1958) ISBN 0-89275-011-1 ISBN 0-8159-7216-4
- Hamilton Fish, Tragic Deception: FDR and America's Involvement in World War II (Devin-Adair Pub, 1983) ISBN 0-8159-6917-1
- John Toland, Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath (Berkley Reissue edition, 1986 ISBN 0-425-09040-X) is an excellent account by a Pulitzer Prize winning author, though thought by some not to back up his claims as thoroughly as expected by academic conventions.
- Robert Stinnett, Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor (Free Press, 1999) A study of the Freedom of Information Act documents that led Congress to direct clearance of Kimmel and Short. ISBN 0-7432-0129-9
- Edward L. Beach, Scapegoats: A Defense of Kimmel and Short at Pearl HarborISBN 1-55750-059-2
- Andrew Krepinevich, Template:PDFlink (Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments) contains a passage regarding the Yarnell attack, as well as reference citations.
- Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision, (Stanford University Press: 1962). Regarded by many as the most important work in the attempt to understand the intelligence failure at Pearl Harbor. Her introduction and analysis of the concept of "noise" persists in understanding intelligence failures.
- John Hughes-Wilson, Military Intelligence Blunders and Cover-Ups. Robinson, 1999 (revised 2004). Contains a brief but insightful chapter on the particular intelligence failures, and broader overview of what causes them.
- Horn, Steve (2005). The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor: Operation K And Other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-388-8.
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(help) - Seki, Eiji. (2006). Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. London: Global Oriental. ISBN 1-905-24628-5; ISBN 978-1-905-24628-1 (cloth) Reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007. Previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation.
- Daniel Madsen, Resurrection-Salvaging the Battle Fleet at Pearl Harbor. U.S. Naval Institute Press. 2003. Highly readable and thoroughly researched account of the aftermath of the attack and the salvage efforts from December 8, 1941 through early 1944.
External links
Accounts
- Guarding The United States And Its Outposts Official U.S. Army history of Pearl Harbor
- War comes to Hawaii Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Monday, September 13, 1999
Media
Historic documents
- WW2DB: US Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor
- Second World War — USA Declaration of War on Japan.
- Collection of extensive Japanese preparation military documents
21°22′N 157°57′W / 21.367°N 157.950°W
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