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The '''Quran''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|k|ɔr|ˈ|ɑː|n}}{{ref|1|[n 1]}} {{Respell|kor|AHN|'}} , {{lang-ar|القرآن}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-qurʼān}}'', {{IPA-ar|qurˈʔaːn|IPA}},{{ref|2|[n 2]}} literally meaning "the recitation", also [[Romanization of Arabic|romanised]] '''Qurʼan''' or '''Koran''') is the central [[religious text]] of [[Islam]], which [[Muslim]]s believe to be a revelation from [[God in Islam|God]] ({{lang-ar|الله}}, ''[[Allah]]'').<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein | authorlink=Seyyed Hossein Nasr | title=Qurʼān |year=2007| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-11-04|location=|publisher=|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran}}</ref> It is widely regarded as the finest piece of [[Arabic literature|literature in the Arabic language]].<ref>Chejne, A. (1969) ''The Arabic Language: Its Role in History'', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.</ref><ref>Nelson, K. (1985) ''The Art of Reciting the Quran'', University of Texas Press, Austin</ref><ref>Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) ''Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild''. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.</ref><ref>Taji-Farouki, S. (ed.) (2004) ''Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Quran'', Oxford University Press, Oxford</ref> Muslims consider the Quran to be the only book that has been protected by God from distortion or corruption.<ref>Understanding the Qurán - Page xii, Ahmad Hussein Sakr - 2000</ref> However, some significant textual variations (employing different wordings) and deficiencies in the Arabic script mean the relationship between the text of today's Quran and an original text is unclear.<ref>Donner, Fred, "The historical context" in McAuliffe, J. D. (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 31–33.</ref> Quranic chapters are called [[sura]]s and verses are called [[ayah]]s. |
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|name=James Randi |
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|image=RANDI.jpg |
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|birth_name=Randall James Hamilton Zwinge |
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|birth_date={{birth date and age|1928|08|07}} |
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|birth_place=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] |
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|occupation=Magician, illusionist, writer, skeptic |
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|spouse= Deyvi Pena (married 2013) |
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|website={{URL|http://www.randi.org}} |
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|nationality=[[Canadian American]] |
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|religion=None<ref name="Atheism" /> |
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|signature=JamesRandiSignature.png |
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}} |
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Muslims believe that the Quran was verbally revealed from God to [[Muhammad]] through the angel [[Gabriel]] (''Jibril''), gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609 [[Common Era|CE]],<ref> |
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'''James Randi''' (born '''Randall James Hamilton Zwinge''', August 7, 1928) is a [[Canadian American|Canadian-American]] [[magic (illusion)|stage magician]] and [[scientific skepticism|scientific skeptic]]<ref name="nyt 1988-07-27">{{cite news |title=Water That Has a Memory? Skeptics Win Second Round |last=Sullivan |first=Walter |authorlink=Walter S. Sullivan |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/27/us/water-that-has-a-memory-skeptics-win-second-round.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 27, 1988 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref><ref name="nyt 2001-02-17">{{cite news |title=Poof! You're a Skeptic: The Amazing Randi's Vanishing Humbug |first=Patricia |last=Cohen |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/17/arts/17RAND.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=February 17, 2001 |accessdate=May 5, 2010}}</ref> best known for his challenges to [[paranormal]] claims and [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="Rodrigues">[[#Rodrigues|Rodrigues 2010]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=OsGuZjYzXdAC&pg=PA271 p. 271]</ref> Randi is the founder of the [[James Randi Educational Foundation]] (JREF). Randi began his career as a magician [[stage name|named]] '''The Amazing Randi''', but after retiring at age 60, he was able to devote most of his time to investigating paranormal, [[occult]], and [[supernatural]] claims, which he collectively calls "woo-woo."<ref name="Randiwoo">{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=February 9, 2007 |title=More Geller Woo-Woo |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=August 19, 2012 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2007-02/020209morebrowne.html#i7 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110607052454/http://www.randi.org/jr/2007-02/020209morebrowne.html#i7 |archivedate=June 7, 2011}}</ref> |
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*''Chronology of Prophetic Events'', Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001) p. 50 Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. |
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*[http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.arberry/17:105 Quran 17:105]</ref> when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632 CE, the year of his death.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name = LivRlgP338>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths'', Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.</ref><ref name = QuranC17V106>{{Cite quran|17|106|style=nosup}}</ref> Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was collected by his companions using written Quranic materials and everything that had been memorized of the Quran.<ref name=jecampo/> |
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Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, the proof of his prophethood<ref>{{cite book|last=Peters|first=F.E.|title=The Words and Will of God|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-11461-7|pages=12–13}}</ref> and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to [[Adam]] and ended with Muhammad. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the [[Books of the Bible|Jewish and Christian scriptures]]. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events.<ref name=sanigosian>{{cite book|last=Nigosian|first=S.A.|title=Islam : its history, teaching and practices|year=2004|publisher=Indiana Univ. Press|isbn=0-253-21627-3|pages=65–80|edition=[New ed.].}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Brannon M.|last=Wheeler|year=2002|title=Prophets in the Quran: an introduction to the Quran and Muslim exegesis|publisher=Continuum|page=15|ISBN=978-0-8264-4956-6}}</ref><ref>[http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.arberry/3:84 Quran 3:84]</ref> The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance. It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence.<ref>Nasr (2003), p. 42{{full|date=July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite quran|2|67|end=76|style=nosup}}</ref> The Quran is used along with the ''[[hadith]]'' to interpret [[Sharia|''sharia'' law]].<ref>''Handbook of Islamic Marketing'', Page 38, G. Rice - 2011</ref> During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic.<ref>Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives - Page 193, Brian V Street - 2001</ref> |
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Although often referred to as a "[[debunker]]," Randi dislikes the term's connotations and prefers to describe himself as an "investigator."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://affect.media.mit.edu/milliondollarchallenge/ |title=One-Million-Dollar Challenge |work=MIT Media Lab: Affective Computing Group |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> He has written about the paranormal, [[skepticism]], and the history of magic. He was a frequent guest on ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson]]'' and was occasionally featured on the television program ''[[Penn & Teller: Bullshit!]]'' The JREF sponsors the [[One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge]] offering a prize of US$1,000,000 to eligible applicants<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/1m-challenge/challenge-application.html |title=Challenge Application |publisher=JREF |accessdate=November 23, 2010}}</ref> who can demonstrate evidence of any [[paranormal]], supernatural or occult power or event under test conditions agreed to by both parties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/1m-challenge.html |title=One Million Dollar Challenge – Challenge Info |publisher=JREF |date=October 30, 2008 |accessdate=June 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a ''hafiz''. Some Muslims read Quranic [[ayah]]s (verses) with [[elocution]], which is often called [[tajwid|tajwīd]]. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during [[tarawih]] prayers. |
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==Early life== |
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Randi was born in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], Canada on August 7, 1928,<ref name="HWWilson">[[#Moritz|Moritz 1987]], p. 455</ref> the son of Marie Alice (née Paradis) and George Randall Zwinge.<ref name="HWWilson" /> He has a younger brother and sister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/swift-blog/192-swift-may-9-2008.html#i3 |title=How Wrong Can You Get? |last=Randi |first=James |date=May 9, 2008 |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Blog |accessdate=December 17, 2008}}</ref> He took up [[magic (illusion)|magic]] after seeing [[Harry Blackstone, Sr.]]<ref>{{YouTube|id=wJMTyK0VfdY|title="James Randi at the Magic Castle: In Conversation with Max Maven"|link=no}}</ref> and reading magic books while spending 13 months in a [[Orthopedic cast|body cast]] following a bicycle accident. He confounded doctors who expected he would never walk again.<ref name="TorontoStar1986">{{cite news |title=The Amazing Randi |first=Patricia |last=Orwen |url=http://zammoth-jamesrandi.blogspot.com/ |newspaper=[[Toronto Star|The Toronto Star]] |publisher=[[Torstar|Torstar Corporation]] |date=August 23, 1986 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> Randi often skipped classes, and, at 17, dropped out of high school to perform as a conjurer in a carnival roadshow.<ref>{{cite news |title=The 'quack' hunter |first=Jeanne |last=Malmgren |others=''Times'' researcher Barbara Oliver contributed to this report. |url=http://www.sptimes.com/Floridian/41498/The__quack__hunter.html |newspaper=[[Tampa Bay Times|St. Petersburg Times]] |publisher=[[Times Publishing Company]] |location=St. Petersburg, FL |date=April 14, 1998 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}</ref> He practiced as a [[Mentalism|mentalist]] in local nightclubs and at Toronto's [[Canadian National Exhibition]], and wrote for [[Montreal]]'s tabloid press.<ref name="Colombo">[[#Colombo|Colombo 2004]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=OXP_OpQna4gC&pg=PA182 p. 182]</ref> In his twenties, Randi posed as a [[psychic]] to establish that they were actually doing simple tricks, and briefly wrote an [[astrology|astrological]] column in the Canadian tabloid ''[[Globe (tabloid)|Midnight]]'' under the name "Zo-ran," by simply shuffling up items from newspaper astrology columns and pasting them randomly into a column.<ref>[[#Randi 1982c|Randi 1982c]], pp. 230–231. Randi reprints two newspaper columns from the ''[[Toronto Telegram|Toronto Evening Telegram]]'' of August 28, 1950, and August 14, 1950, by Wessely Hicks about Randall Zwinge's psychic predictions. The earlier column states that "Mr. Zwinge said he first became aware that he possessed Extra Sensory Perception when he was nine years old."</ref><ref>[[#Randi 1982a|Randi 1982a]], pp. 61–62</ref> In his thirties, Randi worked in [[Philippines|Philippine]] nightclubs and all across Japan.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=May 19, 2006 |title=Filipino Justice |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=June 15, 2009 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-05/051906sylvia.html#i13 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100218084019/http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-05/051906sylvia.html#i13 |archivedate=February 18, 2010}}</ref> He witnessed many tricks that were presented as being supernatural. One of his earliest reported experiences is that of seeing an [[Evangelism|evangelist]] using a version of the "[[billet reading|one-ahead]]"<ref name="Time01">{{cite news|title=Fighting Against Flimflam|first=Leon|last=Jaroff|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,149448,00.html?iid=chix-sphere|publisher=''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''|date=June 24, 2001|accessdate=June 18, 2007}}</ref> technique to convince churchgoers of his [[divinity|divine]] powers.<ref name="Taft">{{cite news|first=Philip B., Jr.|last=Taft|title=A Charlatan in Pursuit of Truth|work=The New York Times|date=July 5, 1981}}</ref> |
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==Etymology and meaning== |
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==Career== |
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[[File:IslamicGalleryBritishMuseum3.jpg|thumb|11th-century North African Qurʼan in the [[British Museum]]]] |
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The word ''{{transl|ar|ALA|qurʼān}}'' appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a [[verbal noun]] (''[[Arabic verbs#Verbal noun (maṣdar)|{{transl|ar|ALA|maṣdar}}]]'') of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] verb ''{{transl|ar|ALA|qaraʼa}}'' ({{lang|ar|قرأ}}), meaning 'he read' or 'he recited.' The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] equivalent is ({{lang|syc|ܩܪܝܢܐ|}}) ''{{transl|sem|qeryānā}}'', which refers to “scripture reading” or “lesson.”<ref name="Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon">{{cite web|title=qryn|url=http://cal.huc.edu/searchroots.php?pos=N&lemma=qryn|accessdate=31 August 2013}}</ref> While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is ''{{transl|ar|ALA|qaraʼa}}'' itself.<ref name=Britannica /> Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.<ref name="Britannica"/> An important meaning of the word is the “act of reciting,” as reflected in an early Quranic passage: ''“It is for Us to collect it and to recite it ({{transl|ar|ALA|qurʼānahu}}).”''<ref>{{Cite quran|75|17|style=nosup}}</ref> |
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In other verses, the word refers to “an individual passage recited [by Muhammad].” Its [[liturgy|liturgical]] context is seen in a number of passages, for example: ''"So when ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-qurʼān}}'' is recited, listen to it and keep silent."''<ref>{{Cite quran|7|204|style=nosup}}</ref> The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the [[Tawrat|Torah]] and [[Injil|Gospel]].<ref>See “Ķur'an, al-,” ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online'' and {{Cite quran|9|111}}</ref> |
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===Magician=== |
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[[File:RandiFork.jpg|thumb|Fork bent by Randi]] |
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Though defining himself as a conjuror, Randi's career as a professional stage magician<ref name="takedown">{{cite web |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/james_randi.html |title=James Randi: Homeopathy, quackery and fraud |month=February |year=2007 |work=[[TED (conference)|TED]] |publisher=[[Sapling Foundation]] |location=New York |accessdate=April 24, 2010}} Randi explained in a February 2007 presentation that he believes the word "magician" implies one who has actual magical abilities, whereas a conjurer is one who uses skills to merely play the part of one.</ref> and [[escapologist]] began in 1946. Initially, he presented himself under his real name, Randall Zwinge, which he later dropped in favor of "The Amazing Randi." Early in his career, he performed numerous escape acts from jail cells and safes around the world. On February 7, 1956, he appeared live on [[NBC]]'s ''[[Today (U.S. TV program)|Today]]'' show, where he remained for 104 minutes in a sealed metal coffin that had been submerged in a hotel swimming pool, breaking what was said to be [[Harry Houdini]]'s record of 93 minutes.<ref name="Sinclair">{{cite news |title=Television & radio column |first=Gordon |last=Sinclair |authorlink=Gordon Sinclair |newspaper=[[Toronto Star|Toronto Daily Star]] |date=February 7, 1956}}</ref><ref name="Bryant">{{cite news |title=Handcuffs no problem Toronto-born magician laughs at locksmiths |first=George |last=Bryant |newspaper=Toronto Daily Star |date=June 21, 1956}}</ref> |
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The term also has closely related [[synonym]]s that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of ''{{transl|ar|ALA|qurʼān}}'' in certain contexts. Such terms include ''{{transl|ar||[[kitab|kitāb]]}}'' (book); ''{{transl|ar||[[ayah|āyah]]}}'' (sign); and ''{{transl|ar||[[Sura|sūrah]]}}'' (scripture). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a [[definite article]] (''al-''), the word is referred to as the “revelation” (''[[wahy|waḥy]]''), that which has been “sent down” (''[[tanzil|tanzīl]]'') at intervals.<ref>{{Cite quran|20|2|style=nosup}} cf.</ref><ref>{{Cite quran|25|32|style=nosup}} cf.</ref> Other related words are: ''{{transl|ar|ALA|[[dhikr]]}}'' (remembrance), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning, and ''{{transl|ar||ḥikmah}}'' (wisdom), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.<ref name=Britannica /><ref>According to Welch in the ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', the verses pertaining to the usage of the word ''hikma'' should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that ''“Muhammad is to judge (''tahkum'') mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him.”''</ref> |
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In the late 1960s, Randi hosted ''The Amazing Randi Show'' on [[New York]] radio station [[WOR (AM)|WOR]].<ref name="Randiofficialbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/component/content/article/58.html|title=About James Randi Full Bio|year=2007|publisher=JREF|accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> This radio show, which filled [[Long John Nebel]]'s old slot with similar content after Nebel went to [[WNBC (AM)|WNBC]] in 1962, often invited guests who defended paranormal claims, among them Randi's then-friend [[James W. Moseley]]. Randi, in turn, spoke at Moseley's 1967 Fourth Congress of Scientific Ufologists in New York City,<ref>[[#Moseley & Pflock|Moseley & Pflock 2002]], pp. 189, 204</ref> stating, "Let's not fool ourselves. There are some garden variety liars involved in all this. But in among all the trash and nonsense perpetrated in the name of Ufology, I think there is a small grain of truth."<ref>{{cite news|first=Willard|last=Clopton|title=Air Force's UFO Expert Meets the Man From S.A.U.C.E.R.S.|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=June 27, 1967 }}</ref> |
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The Quran describes itself as "the discernment or the criterion between truth and falsehood" (''al-furqān''), "the mother book" (''umm al-kitāb''), "the guide" (''[[Huda (name)|huda]]''), "the wisdom" (''[[hikmah]]''), "the remembrance" (''dhikr'') and "the revelation" (''tanzīl''; something sent down, signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place).<ref name=Jaffer>{{cite book|last= Abbas Jaffer, Masuma Jaffer|title=Quranic Sciences|publisher=ICAS press|year=2009|isbn=1-904063-30-6|pages=11–15}}</ref> Another term is ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-kitāb}}'' (the book), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The adjective of Quran has multiple transliterations including quranic, koranic and qur'anic, or capitalised as Qur'anic, Koranic and Quranic. The term ''[[mus'haf|muṣḥaf]]'' ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.<ref name="Britannica" /> Other transliterations of Quran include "al-Coran", "Coran", "Kuran" and "al-Qurʼan". |
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Randi also hosted numerous television specials and went on several world tours. As "The Amazing Randi" he appeared regularly on the New York-based children's television series ''[[Wonderama]]'' from 1959 to 1967.<ref name="Butler">{{cite web |url=http://www.tvparty.com/lostwonder1.html |title=Wonderama! |last1=Butler |first1=Kevin S. |last2=Ingram |first2=Billy |work=TVparty! |publisher=William Ingram |location=Greensboro, NC |accessdate=April 5, 2007 |quote=Sonny Fox hosted another 'Wonderama Thanksgiving Day Party' on Thursday afternoon, November 23, 1961 with guests ventriloquist and cartoon voice-over performer Paul Winchell, magician/escape artist and magic historian The Amazing James Randi and folk singer Pat Woodell.}}</ref> He also hosted a revival of the 1950s children's show ''[[The Magic Clown]]'' in 1970, though the program enjoyed only a brief life.<ref name="Butler 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.tvparty.com/lostny2bonamo.html |title=Bonamo, The Magic Clown |last=Butler |first=Kevin S. |work=TVparty! |publisher=William Ingram |location=Greensboro, NC |accessdate=May 13, 2008}}</ref> In the February 2, 1974, issue of the British conjuring magazine ''[[Goodliffe's Abracadabra|Abracadabra]]'', Randi, defining the community of magicians, stated, "I know of no calling which depends so much upon mutual trust and faith as does ours." In the December 2003 issue of ''[[The Linking Ring]]'', the monthly publication of the [[International Brotherhood of Magicians]], it is stated, "Perhaps Randi's ethics are what make him Amazing" and "The Amazing Randi not only talks the talk, he walks the walk."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barber |first=Peter W. |year=2003 |month=December |title=Points to Ponder: Another Matter of Ethics |journal=[[The Linking Ring]] |volume=83 |issue=12 |page=97 |publisher=[[International Brotherhood of Magicians]] |issn=0024-4023}}</ref> |
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==History== |
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During [[Alice Cooper]]'s 1973–1974 tour, Randi performed on stage as a dentist and Alice's executioner.<ref>{{cite AV media |last=Gannon |first=Joe (Director) |authorlink=Joe Gannon |year=1974 |title=[[Good To See You Again, Alice Cooper]] |medium=Motion picture |publisher=[[Penthouse (magazine)|General Media International, Inc.]] |oclc=62534800}}</ref> He also designed and built several of the stage props, including the [[guillotine (magic trick)|guillotine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sickthingsuk.co.uk/people/p-randi.php|title=The Amazing Randi|website=SickthingsUK|publisher=Simon Halley|location=Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England|accessdate=May 18, 2007}}</ref> Shortly after that, in a 1976 performance for the Canadian TV special ''World of Wizards'', Randi escaped from a [[straitjacket]] while suspended upside-down over [[Niagara Falls]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=May 3, 2002 |title=Dangerous Stunts |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=May 18, 2007 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/050302.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070609005249/http://www.randi.org/jr/050302.html |archivedate=June 9, 2007}}</ref> |
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===Prophetic era=== |
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Randi has been accused of actually using "psychic powers" to perform acts such as [[spoon bending]]. According to [[James Alcock]], at a meeting where Randi was duplicating the performances of [[Uri Geller]], a professor from the [[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|University at Buffalo]] shouted out that Randi was a fraud. Randi said, "Yes, indeed, I'm a trickster, I'm a cheat, I'm a charlatan, that's what I do for a living. Everything I've done here was by trickery." The professor shouted back: "That's not what I mean. You're a fraud because you're pretending to do these things through trickery, but you're actually using psychic powers and misleading us by not admitting it."<ref>[[#Alcock|Alcock 2001]], p. 42</ref> A similar event involved Senator [[Claiborne Pell]], a believer in psychic phenomena. When Randi personally demonstrated to Pell that he could reveal a concealed drawing that had been secretly made by the senator simply by using trickery, Pell refused to believe that it was a trick, saying, "I think Randi may be a psychic and doesn't realize it." Randi has consistently denied having any paranormal powers or abilities.<ref>[[#Gardner|Gardner 2000]], p. 178</ref> |
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{{See also|Wahy}} |
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[[File:Cave Hira.jpg|thumb|150 px|Cave of Ḥirā, location of Muhammad's first revelation.]] |
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Islamic tradition relates that [[Muhammad]] received [[Muhammad's first revelation|his first revelation]] in the [[Hira|Cave of Hira]] during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to ''[[hadith]]'' and Muslim history, after Muhammad [[Hijra (Islam)|emigrated to Medina]] and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his [[sahabah|companions]] to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraish who were taken prisoners at the battle of Badr, regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Qurʼan as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 CE.<ref name=tabatabai5>{{cite book|last=Tabatabai|first=Sayyid M. H.|title=The Qur'an in Islam : its impact and influence on the life of muslims|year=1987|publisher=Zahra Publ.|isbn=0710302665|url=http://www.al-islam.org/quraninislam/5.htm}}</ref><ref name=watt>{{cite book|last=Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt)|title=Bell's introduction to the Qur'an|year=1970|publisher=Univ. Press|isbn=0852241712|pages=31–51}} |
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</ref><ref name=chi>{{cite book|last=P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge history of Islam|year=1970|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=9780521291354|pages=32|edition=Reprint.}}</ref> There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.<ref name=denffer>{{cite book|last=Denffer|first=Ahmad von|title=Ulum al-Qur'an : an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an|year=1985|publisher=Islamic Foundation|isbn=0860371328|pages=37|edition=Repr.}}</ref> |
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Orthodox Muslims believe that the Quran is the unchanging Word of God. However, some non-Islamic scholars believe differently. For example, "Dr. Gerd R Puin, a renowned [[Islamicist]] at [[Saarland University]], Germany, says it is not one single work that has survived unchanged through the centuries. It may include stories that were written before the prophet Mohammed began his ministry and which have subsequently been rewritten."<ref name=theguardian.com>{{cite news|last=Taher|first=Abul|title=Querying the Koran|url=http://www.theguardian.com/education/2000/aug/08/highereducation.theguardian|newspaper=The Guardian|date=8 August 2000}}</ref> Based on his analysis of [[Sana'a manuscript]], Puin claims that the Quran contains stories that were written before prophet Mohammed began his ministry and which have subsequently been rewritten. His findings were controversial—and offensive enough to Muslims that the authorities who hold the manuscript denied Puin further access to them. Allen Jones, lecturer in Koranic Studies at [[Oxford University]], says that "trifling changes were made to the text" and notes that diacritical marks and 1,000 [[Aleph#Arabic|alifs]] (the first letter of the [[Arabic alphabet]]) were inserted into the Quran around 700 AD by [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]], governor of [[Iraq]], in order to obtain more understandable version which Jones notes, "became pretty stable".<ref name="theguardian.com"/> |
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===Author=== |
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Randi is author of 10 books, among them ''[[Conjuring (book)|Conjuring]]'' (1992), a biographical history of noted magicians. The book is subtitled: ''Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, MAGIC!'' The book's cover says that it is by "James Randi, Esq., A Contrite Rascal Once Dedicated to these Wicked Practices but Now Almost Totally Reformed." The book selects the most influential magicians and tells some of their history in the context of strange deaths and careers on the road. This work expanded on Randi's second book which was called ''Houdini, His Life and Art''.<ref name=Milkwaukee>{{cite news |last=Bartlett |first=Kay |title=Truthful trickster |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RU4aAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wykEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3862,1502395 |accessdate=July 13, 2012 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |newspaper=[[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel|The Milwaukee Journal]] |date=July 13, 1981}}</ref> This illustrated work was published in 1976 and was co-authored with [[Bert Sugar]]. It focuses on the professional and private life of Houdini.<ref name="Daniel">[[#Burt|Burt 2001]], p. 192</ref> |
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[[File:Surat al-Fatiha inscribed upon the shoulder blade of a camel.jpg|thumb|left|110 px|Quranic verses inscribed on the shoulder blade of a camel.]] |
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Randi also wrote a children's book in 1989 titled ''The Magic World of the Amazing Randi'', which introduced children to magic tricks. In addition to his magic books, he has written several educational works about the paranormal and pseudoscientific. These include biographies of Uri Geller and [[Nostradamus]] as well as reference material on other major paranormal figures. He is currently working on ''A Magician in the Laboratory'', which recounts his application of skepticism to science.<ref name="randi1" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/swift-blog/1194-teleportation-magic-established-by-science-at-last.html |title=Teleportation Magic Established By Science, At Last! |last=Randi |first=James |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Blog |accessdate=January 19, 2011}}</ref> He is a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the [[Trap Door Spiders]], which served as the basis of [[Isaac Asimov]]'s fictional group of mystery solvers, the [[Black Widowers]].<ref name="Asimov1994-120">[[#Asimov|Asimov 1994]]</ref> |
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[[Sahih al-Bukhari]] narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and [[Aisha]] reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."<ref>[http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/001-sbt.php Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1]. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. "God's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."</ref> Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power", the one who "appeared on the uppermost horizon and then came nearer and nearer, until he was as close to him as the distance of two bows, or even less."(53:7-8).<ref name=watt/><ref>[http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.pickthall/53:5 Quran 53:5-8]</ref> The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'' that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a [[Clairvoyant|soothsayer]] or a [[magician (paranormal)|magician]] since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|ancient Arabia]]. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.<ref>[[Encyclopedia of Islam]] online, Muhammad article</ref> |
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[[File:Iqra.jpg|thumb|210 px|Part of ''[[Al-Alaq]]'' - 96th ''sura'' of the Quran - the first revelation received by Muhammad.]] |
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In the Quranic verse 7:157,<ref>{{cite web|title=Quran verse 7:157|url=http://tanzil.net/#7:157}}</ref> Muhammad is described as ''"ummi"'' which is traditionally interpreted as illiterate but the meaning is rather more complex. The medieval commentators such as [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Al-Tabari]] maintained that the term induced two meanings: firstly, the inability to read or write in general and secondly, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures however they gave priority to the first meaning. Besides Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as [[William Montgomery Watt|Watt]] prefer the second meaning.<ref name=watt/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Günther|first=Sebastian|title=Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis|journal=Journal of Quranic Studies|year=2002|volume=4|issue=1|pages=1–26}}</ref> |
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===Compilation=== |
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Other books are ''[[Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions|Flim-Flam!]]'' (1982) and ''[[The Faith Healers]]'' (1987). |
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{{See also|History of the Quran|Sana'a manuscript}} |
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[[File:Qur'anic Manuscript - 3 - Hijazi script.jpg|thumb|upright|Quran manuscript from the seventh century CE, written on [[vellum]] in the [[Hijazi script]].]] |
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Based on earlier transmitted reports, in the year 632 CE, after Muhammad died and a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in a [[Battle of Yamama|battle]] by Musaylimah, the first caliph [[Abu Bakr]] (d. 634CE) decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] (d. 655CE) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. After Abu Bakr, [[Hafsa bint Umar]], Muhammad's widow, was entrusted with the manuscript. In about 650 CE, when the third Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]] (d. 656CE) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran, and as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into [[Persia]], the [[Levant]] and North Africa, in order to preserve the sanctity of the text, ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard copy of the Quran.<ref name=tabatabai5/><ref name=sbukhari1>{{cite web|last=al-Bukhari|first=Muhammad|title=Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_6_61.php|work=810-870 CE|publisher=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com|accessdate=Aug 2013}}</ref> Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad’s death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.<ref name=tabatabai5/><ref name=rippin>{{cite book|last=Rippin, Andrew, et al.|title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an|year=2006|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978140511752-4|edition=[2a reimpr.]}} |
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* see section ''Poetry and Language'' by Navid Kermani, p.107-120. |
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===Skeptic=== |
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[[Image:Thetruthuri.jpg|thumb|right|James Randi's ''[[The Truth About Uri Geller]]'' (1982)]] |
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Randi entered the international spotlight in 1972 when he publicly challenged the claims of Uri Geller. Randi accused Geller of being nothing more than a [[charlatan]] and a [[fraud]] who used standard magic tricks to accomplish his allegedly paranormal feats, and he presented his claims in the book ''[[The Truth About Uri Geller]]'' (1982).<ref name="Taft"/><ref name="Rensberger">{{cite news|first=Boyce|last=Rensberger|url=|title=Magicians Term Israeli 'Psychic' a Fraud|newspaper=The New York Times|page=29|date=December 13, 1975}}</ref> Geller sued Randi for $15 million in 1991 and lost.<ref name="Petit">{{cite news|first=Charles|last=Petit|title=Bay Magicians Back Uri Geller's Critic|work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|page=A27|date=May 23, 1991}}</ref> Geller's suit against the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]] (CSICOP) was thrown out in 1995, and he was ordered to pay $120,000 for filing a frivolous lawsuit.<ref name="Levy">{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Levy|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/BN/lib00142,0EAF986A6473E6E1.html|title=Group Gets $40,000 From 'psychic' Geller Starts Paying Debunkers $120,000|work=[[The Buffalo News]]|date=March 13, 1995|accessdate=December 29, 2007}}</ref> Randi also dismissed Uri Geller's claims that he was capable of the kind of [[Nensha|psychic photography]] made famous by the case of [[Ted Serios]]. It is a matter, Randi argues, of trick photography using a hand-held optical device.<ref name="Carroll">[[#Carroll|Carroll 2003]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=6FPqDFx40vYC&pg=PA313 p. 313]</ref> Randi was a founding fellow and prominent member of CSICOP.<ref>{{cite news |title=God's Chariot! Science Looks at the New Occult |first=Michael |last=Kernan |authorlink=Michael Kernan |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=June 11, 1978}}</ref> During the period of Geller's legal dispute, CSICOP's leadership, wanting to avoid becoming a target of Geller's litigation, requested that Randi refrain from commenting on Geller. Randi refused and resigned, though he maintained a respectful relationship with the group, which in 2006 changed its name to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. In 2010, Randi was one of 16 new CSI fellows elected by its board.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csicop.org/about/csi_fellows_and_staff/ |title=CSI Fellows and Staff – CSI |website=[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |location=Amherst, NY |accessdate=July 23, 2013}}</ref> |
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* For eschatology, see ''Discovering (final destination)'' by Christopher Buck, p.30. |
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Randi has gone on to write several books criticizing beliefs and claims regarding the paranormal.<ref name="jref-randi-bio">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/bio.html |title=About James Randi |publisher=JREF |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071212232735/http://www.randi.org/jr/bio.html |archivedate=December 12, 2007 |accessdate=December 29, 2007}}</ref> He has also demonstrated flaws in studies suggesting the existence of paranormal phenomena; in his [[Project Alpha]] hoax, Randi revealed that he had been able to orchestrate a three-year-long compromise of a privately funded psychic research experiment.<ref>{{cite news |title=Magicians Score a Hit On Scientific Researchers |first=Philip J. |last=Hilts |newspaper=The Washington Post |page=First Section; A1 |date=March 1, 1983}}</ref> The hoax became a scandal and demonstrated the shortcomings of many paranormal research projects at the university level. |
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* For writing and printing, see section ''Written Transmission'' by François Déroche, p.172-187. |
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Randi has appeared on numerous TV shows, sometimes to directly debunk the claimed abilities of fellow guests. In a 1981 appearance on ''[[That's My Line]]'', Randi appeared opposite psychic [[James Hydrick]], who said that he could move objects with his mind and appeared to demonstrate this claim on live television by turning a page in a telephone book without touching it.<ref name="lookatpast">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-09/092206bad.html#i11 |title=A Look at the Past |last=Randi |first=James |date=September 22, 2006 |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070709000648/http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-09/092206bad.html#i11 |archivedate=July 9, 2007 |accessdate=September 20, 2013}}</ref> Randi, having determined that Hydrick was surreptitiously blowing on the book, arranged [[Foam peanut|foam packaging peanuts]] on the table in front of the telephone book for the demonstration. This prevented Hydrick from demonstrating his abilities, which would have been exposed when the blowing moved the packaging.<ref>{{YouTube|id=QlfMsZwr8rc|title="James Randi exposes James Hydrick"|link=no}}</ref> Randi writes that, eventually, Hydrick "confessed everything."<ref name="lookatpast" /> |
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* For literary structure, see section ''Language'' by Mustansir Mir, p.93. |
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[[File:Randi 1983.jpg|thumb|left|Randi speaks at the 1983 [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|CSICOP]] Conference in Buffalo, NY]] |
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* For the history of compilation see ''Introduction'' by Tamara Sonn p.5-6 |
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Randi was awarded a [[John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation|MacArthur Foundation]] [[MacArthur Fellows Program|Fellowship]] in 1986. The fellowship's 5-year grant helped support Randi's investigations of faith healers, including [[W. V. Grant]], [[Ernest Angley]], and [[Peter Popoff]], whom Randi first exposed on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' in February 1986. Hearing about his investigation of Popoff, [[Johnny Carson|Carson]] invited Randi onto his late-night TV show without seeing the evidence he was going to reveal. Carson appeared stunned after Randi showed a brief video segment from one of Popoff's broadcasts showing him calling out a woman in the audience, revealing personal information about her that he claims comes from God, and then performing a laying-on-of-hands healing to drive the devil from her body. Randi then replayed the video, but with some of the sound dubbed in that he and his investigating team captured during the event using a radio scanner and recorder. Their scanner detected the radio frequency Popoff's wife Elizabeth was using backstage to broadcast directions and information to a miniature radio receiver hidden in Popoff's left ear. The information had been gathered by Popoff's assistants, who handed out "prayer cards" to the audience before the show, instructing them to write down all the information Popoff would need to pray for them.<ref name="Faith Healers">[[#Randi 1987|Randi 1987]], pp. 139–181</ref><ref name="Heavenly Messages">{{cite news |title=Skeptics' Revelations: Faith Healer Receives 'Heavenly' Messages Via Electronic Receiver, Debunkers Charge |first=John |last=Dart |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1986-05-11/local/me-5518_1_faith-healer |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=May 11, 1986 |accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Randi Debunks Popoff">{{YouTube|id=q7BQKu0YP8Y|title="James Randi Debunks Peter Popoff Faith Healer"|link=no}}</ref> |
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* For recitation, see ''Recitation'' by Anna M. Gade p.481-493 |
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The news coverage generated by Randi's exposé on ''The Tonight Show'' led to many TV stations dropping Popoff's TV show, eventually forcing him into bankruptcy in September 1987.<ref name="Bankruptcy">{{cite news |title=Evangelist Popoff Off Air, Files Bankruptcy Petitions |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1987-09-26/local/me-2461_1_peter-popoff |first=John |last=Dart |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=September 26, 1987 |accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref> |
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However, the televangelist returned to the airwaves a decade later with faith healing infomercials that reportedly pulled in more than $23 million in 2005, from viewers sending in money for promised healing and prosperity. The Canadian Centre for Inquiry's ''Think Again! TV'' documented one of Popoff's more recent performances before a large audience who gathered in [[Toronto]] on May 26, 2011, hoping to be saved from illness and poverty.<ref name="Think Again!">{{YouTube|id=oZo0DLKriDY|title="Secret Footage of 'Faith Healer' Peter Popoff in Toronto May 2011"|link=no}}</ref> |
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</ref><ref>Mohamad K. Yusuff, [http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_251_300/zayd_ibn_thabit_and_the_glorious.htm Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an]</ref><ref>The Koran; A Very Short Introduction, Michael Cook. Oxford University Press, pp. 117–124</ref> The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.<ref name=watt/><ref name=chi/><ref>F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: “Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation.”</ref> |
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In 1988, Randi tested the gullibility of the media by perpetrating a hoax of his own. By teaming up with Australia's ''[[60 Minutes (Australian TV program)|60 Minutes]]'' program and by releasing a fake press package, he built up publicity for a spirit channeler named Carlos who was actually artist Jose Alvarez, a friend of Randi's.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/stoss01.htm |title=The Power of Belief |date=October 6, 1998 |work=[[ABC News]] |type=Transcript |oclc=707971164 |accessdate=June 29, 2012}}</ref> Randi would tell him what to say through sophisticated radio equipment. According to the 60 Minutes program on the Carlos hoax, "it was claimed that Alvarez would not have had the audience he did at the Opera House (and the potential sales there from) had the media coverage been more aggressive (and factual)," though an analysis by ''[[Australian Skeptics|The Skeptic]]'''s Tim Mendham concluded that while the media coverage of Alvarez's appearances was not credulous, "it [the hoax] at least showed that they could benefit by being a touch more sceptical."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mendham |first=Tim |year=1988 |title=The Carlos Hoax |journal=The Skeptic |volume=8 |issue=1 |location=Sydney |publisher=[[Australian Skeptics|Australian Skeptics Inc.]] |format=PDF |accessdate=April 19, 2013 |issn=0726-9897 |oclc=53994493 |url=http://www.skeptics.com.au/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/theskeptic/2ndcoming/skepticism.pdf}}</ref> The hoax was exposed on ''60 Minutes''; Carlos and Randi explained how they pulled it off.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skepdic.com/carlos.html |title='Carlos' hoax |work=The Skeptic's Dictionary |publisher=[[Robert Todd Carroll]] |accessdate=June 15, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite interview |last=Randi |first=James |interviewer=Paul Willis |title=James Randi and the Great Carlos |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/correx/archives/randi4.htm ||publisher=Abc.net.au |program=The Correx Archives |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=May 7, 1998 |accessdate=June 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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According to [[Shia Islam|Shia]] and some [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] scholars, [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]] (d. 661CE) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including [[Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud|Ibn Mas'ud]]'s and [[Ubayy ibn Kab]]'s codex, none of which exist today.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name=tabatabai5/><ref name=leaman>{{cite book|last=Leaman|first=Oliver|title=The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-415-32639-7}} |
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In the book ''The Faith Healers'', Randi wrote that his anger and relentlessness arises out of compassion for the victims of fraud. Randi has also been critical of [[João de Deus (medium)|João de Deus]] (John of God), a self-proclaimed [[psychic surgery|psychic surgeon]] who has received international attention.<ref name="JohnofGod">{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=February 18, 2005 |title=The ABC-TV Infomercial for John of God |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=November 18, 2006 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/021805a.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100722060547/http://www.randi.org/jr/021805a.html |archivedate=July 22, 2010}}</ref> Randi observed, referring to psychic surgery, "To any experienced conjurer, the methods by which these seeming miracles are produced are very obvious."<ref>[[#Randi 1995|Randi 1995]], [http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/psychic%20surgery.html "psychic surgery"]</ref> |
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* For God in the Quran (Allah), see ''Allah'' by Zeki Saritoprak, p. 33-40. |
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* For eschatology, see ''Eschatology'' by Zeki Saritoprak, p. 194-199. |
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* For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see ''Cyberspace and the Qur'an'' by Andrew Rippin, p.159-163. |
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* For calligraphy, see by ''Calligraphy and the Qur'an'' by Oliver Leaman, p 130-135. |
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* For translation, see ''Translation and the Qur'an'' by Afnan Fatani, p.657-669. |
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* For recitation, see ''Art and the Qur'an'' by Tamara Sonn, p.71-81 and ''Reading'' by Stefan Wild, p.532-535.</ref> |
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Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development.<ref name=jecampo>{{cite book|last=Campo|first=Juan E.|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|year=2009|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=0-8160-5454-1|pages=570–74}}</ref> The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no [[critical text]] produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.<ref name="gilliot2006p52">For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text" in McAuliffe, J. D. (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 52.</ref> Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.<ref>{{cite web|last=Arthur Jeffery and St. Clair-Tisdal et al, Edited by Ibn Warraq, Summarised by Sharon Morad, Leeds|url=http://debate.org.uk/topics/books/origins-koran.html|title=The Origins of the Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book |accessdate=2011-03-15}}</ref><ref>*F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that the Quran is the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref> |
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In 1982, Randi verified the abilities of [[Arthur Lintgen]], a Philadelphia physician who is able to determine the classical music recorded on a [[Gramophone record|vinyl LP]] solely by examining the groove on the record. However, Lintgen does not claim to have any paranormal ability, merely knowledge of the way that the groove forms patterns on particular recordings.<ref name="Randi_2002">{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=November 1, 2002 |title=Reading Records |journal=Swift |type=Newsletter |publisher=JREF |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/110102.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100620232826/http://www.randi.org/jr/110102.html |archivedate=June 20, 2010 |accessdate=July 11, 2010}}</ref> |
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In 1972, in a mosque in the city of [[Sana'a]], [[Yemen]], manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist. The [[Sana'a manuscript]]s contain [[palimpsest]]s, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (''scriptio inferior'') is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic" Quranic content, while the text written on top (''scriptio superior'') is believed to belong to Uthmanic time.<ref name=jqs1>{{cite journal|title=‘The Qur'an: Text, Interpretation and Translation’ Third Biannual SOAS Conference, October 16–17, 2003|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2004|month=April|volume=6|issue=1|pages=143–145|doi=10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143}}</ref> Studies using [[radiocarbon dating]] indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 AD with a 99 percent probability.<ref name=bergmann>{{cite journal|last=Bergmann|first=Uwe|coauthors=Sadeghi, Behnam|title=The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Qurān of the Prophet|journal=Arabica|year=2010|month=September|volume=57|issue=4|pages=343–436|doi=10.1163/157005810X504518|url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/10.1163/157005810x504518}}</ref><ref name=sadeghi>{{cite journal|last=Sadeghi|first=Behnam|coauthors=Goudarzi, Mohsen|title=Ṣan‘ā’ 1 and the Origins of the Qur’ān|journal=Der Islam|year=2012|month=March|volume=87|issue=1-2|pages=1–129|doi=10.1515/islam-2011-0025|url=http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/islm.2010.87.issue-1-2/islam-2011-0025/islam-2011-0025.xml?format=INT}}</ref> |
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James Randi stated that [[Daniel Dunglas Home]], who could allegedly play an accordion that was locked in a cage without touching it, was caught cheating on a few occasions, but the incidents were never made public. He also stated that the accordion in question was a [[Harmonica|one-octave mouth organ]] concealed under Home's large moustache and that one-octave mouth organs were found in Home's belongings after his death.<ref>[[#Randi 1995|Randi 1995]], [http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/Home,%20Daniel%20Dunglas.html "Home, Daniel Dunglas"]</ref> According to Randi, [[William Lindsay Gresham]] told Randi "around 1960" that he had seen these mouth organs in the Home collection at the [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR).<ref name="Lamont302">[[#Lamont|Lamont 2005]], p. 302</ref> Eric Dingwall, who catalogued Home's collection on its arrival at the SPR does not record the presence of the mouth organs. According to Peter Lamont, the author of an extensive Home biography, "It is unlikely Dingwall would have missed these or did not make them public."<ref name="Lamont302" /> |
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==Significance in Islam== |
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Randi distinguishes between pseudoscience and [[Pseudoscience|crackpot science]]. He regards most of [[parapsychology]] as pseudoscience because of the way in which it is approached, but nonetheless sees it as a legitimate science which "must be pursued," and from which real scientific discoveries may develop.<ref name="Terzian-Bilson">[[#Randi 1997|Randi 1997]], [http://books.google.it/books?id=_mo4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170 p. 170]</ref> Randi regards crackpot science as being as "equally wrong" as pseudoscience, but with no scientific pretensions.<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last=Ripin |editor-first=Barrett H. |year=1995 |month=June |title=Trio Takes Aim Against Spread of Pseudo-Science |journal=APS News |volume=4 |issue=6 |location=College Park, MD |publisher=[[American Physical Society]] |issn=1058-8132 |accessdate=October 9, 2013 |url=http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199506/pseudo-science.cfm}}</ref> |
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{{Islam}} |
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Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to [[Muhammad]] through the [[Gabriel|angel Gabriel]] over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God's final revelation to humanity.<ref name = LivRlgP338/><ref name="autogenerated1">Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 978-0-340-58795-9</ref> They also believe that the Quran has solutions to all the problems of humanity irrespective of how complex they may be and in what age they occur. |
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[[Wahy|Revelation]] in Islamic and Quranic concept means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is ''[[tanzil]]'' (to send down) or ''nuzūl'' (to come down). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down."<ref>See: |
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=== ''Exploring Psychic Powers... Live'' television show === |
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*Corbin (1993), p.12{{full|date=November 2012}} |
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''Exploring Psychic Powers... Live'' was a television show aired live on June 7, 1989, wherein Randi examined several people claiming psychic powers. The show offered $100,000 (Randi's then $10,000 prize plus $90,000 put up by the show's [[Broadcast syndication|syndicator]], [[Lexington Broadcast Services Company|LBS Communications, Inc.]]<ref>{{cite podcast |url=http://clear-light.msspro.com/files/Randi_2003-Jul-31.wav |title=Randi_2003-Jul-31.wav |website=[http://web.archive.org/web/20030907063148/http://clear-light.msspro.com/radio-randi.html JREF Internet Broadcast Archive] |host=Randi, James |format=[[WAV]] |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20030907063148/http://clear-light.msspro.com/files/Randi_2003-Jul-31.wav |archivedate=September 7, 2003 |date=July 31, 2003 |time=0:33:19 |accessdate=November 28, 2006}}</ref>) to anyone who could demonstrate genuine psychic powers. |
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*Wild (1996), pp. 137, 138, 141 and 147{{full|date=November 2012}} |
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*{{Cite quran|2|97|style=nosup}} |
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*{{Cite quran|17|105|style=nosup}}</ref> |
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The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them.<ref name="jenssen2001">Jenssen, H., "Arabic Language" in McAuliffe et al. (eds.), ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān]], vol. 1'' (Brill, 2001), pp. 127-135.</ref> The Quran refers to a written pre-text, "the preserved tablet", that records God's speech even before it was sent down.<ref name=tsonn/><ref>[http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.yusufali/85:22 Quran 85:22]</ref> |
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* An [[astrologer]] claimed that he was able to ascertain a person's [[astrological sign]] after talking with them for a few minutes. He was presented with twelve people, one at a time, each with a different astrological sign. The people could not tell the astrologer their astrological sign or birth date, nor could they wear anything that would indicate it. After the astrologer talked to the people, he had them sit in front of a sign that the astrologer thought was theirs. By agreement, the astrologer needed to get ten of them correct to win. He got none correct. |
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* The next psychic claimed to be able to read [[aura (paranormal)|auras]] around people. The psychic claimed that auras were visible at least five inches from the people. The psychic chose ten people who had a clearly visible aura. The people were to stand behind screens and the psychic agreed that the aura would be visible above the screens. The screens were numbered ''1'' through ''10'', and people were selected whether or not to stand behind their screen at random. The psychic was to tell whether or not a person was standing behind each screen, by seeing the aura above. Since random guessing would be expected to get about five correct, the psychic needed to get eight of the ten right. The psychic stated that she saw an aura over all ten screens, but people were behind only four of the screens. |
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* A [[Dowsing|dowser]] claimed that he could locate water, even in a bottle inside a sealed cardboard box. He was shown twenty boxes and the dowser was to indicate which boxes contained a water bottle. He indicated that eight of the boxes contained water, but only five did.{{clarify|date=October 2012|comment=How many of the five did this person get right?}} |
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* A [[Psychometry (paranormal)|psychometric psychic]] claimed to be able to receive personal information about the owner of an object from the object. In order to avoid ambiguous statements, the psychic agreed to be presented with a watch and a key from twelve different people. The psychic was to match keys and watches belonging to the same person. According to the prior agreement, the psychic had to match nine out of the twelve sets, but she succeeded in only two of the cases. |
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* During the program, another psychic was doing a run of 250 [[Zener cards]], guessing which of the five symbols was on each one. Random guessing should result in about fifty correct predictions, so it was agreed in advance that the psychic had to be right on at least eighty-two cards in order to demonstrate an ability greater than chance. However, she was able to get only fifty predictions correct, which is no better than random guessing.<ref>[[#Polidoro|Polidoro 2003]], pp. 19–24</ref> |
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The issue of whether the Quran is eternal or created became a theological debate ([[Createdness (Qu'ran)|Quran's createdness]]) in the ninth century. [[Mu'tazila]]s, an Islamic school of theology based on reason and rational thought, held that the Quran was created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians considered the Quran to be co-eternal with God and therefore uncreated. [[Sufi]] philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.<ref>Corbin (1993), p.10</ref> |
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==James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF)== |
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{{Main|James Randi Educational Foundation}} |
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[[Image:Randi-foundation.jpg|right|thumb|The offices of the JREF in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]]]] |
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In 1996, Randi established the James Randi Educational Foundation. Randi and his colleagues update JREF's blog, Swift. Topics have included the mathematics of the [[one-seventh area triangle]]. Randi also contributes a regular column, titled "'Twas Brillig," to [[The Skeptics Society]]'s ''[[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|Skeptic]]'' magazine. In his weekly commentary, Randi often gives examples of what he considers the nonsense that he deals with every day.<ref name="si-fakers">{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |year=2005 |month=July |title=Fakers and Innocents |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=29 |issue=4 |location=Amherst, NY |publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |issn=0194-6730 |accessdate=October 29, 2006 |url=http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-07/randi.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061027131225/http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-07/randi.html |archivedate=October 27, 2006}}</ref> |
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Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad and according to their interpretation of verse 15:9 it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Qur'an and indeed, We will be its guardian.").<ref>{{cite book|last=Mir Sajjad Ali, Zainab Rahman|title=Islam and Indian Muslims|year=2010|publisher=Kalpaz Publications|isbn=8178358050|pages=21}}</ref> Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. They argue it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Quran, as the Quran itself maintains. |
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He has regularly featured on many [[podcast]]s, including The Skeptics Society's official podcast ''[[Skepticality]]''<ref name="skepticality10">{{cite podcast |url=http://www.skepticality.com/the-james-randi-educational-foundation/ |title=#10 The James Randi Educational Foundation |website=[[Skepticality]] |publisher=[[The Skeptics Society]] |location=Altadena, CA |date=June 28, 2005 |last1=Swoopy |authorlink1=Robynn McCarthy |last2=Colanduno |first2=Derek |authorlink2=Derek Colanduno |accessdate=November 27, 2011}}</ref><ref name="skepticality67a">{{cite podcast |url=http://www.skepticality.com/xmas-2007/ |title=#67a Xmas 2007 |website=Skepticality |publisher=The Skeptics Society |location=Altadena, CA |date=December 22, 2007 |last1=Swoopy |last2=Colanduno |first2=Derek |accessdate=November 27, 2011}}</ref> and the [[Center for Inquiry]]'s official podcast ''[[Point of Inquiry]]''.<ref name="Point of Inquiry">{{cite web|url=http://www.pointofinquiry.org/|title=Point of Inquiry|accessdate=June 30, 2006}}</ref> From September 2006 onwards, he has occasionally contributed to ''[[The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe]]'' podcast with a column titled "Randi Speaks."<ref name="sg2u">{{cite web|url=http://theskepticsguide.org/|title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe|accessdate=October 29, 2006}}</ref> In addition, ''The Amazing Show'' is a podcast in which Randi shares various anecdotes in an interview format. |
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Muslims commemorate annually the beginning of Quran's revelation on the Night of Destiny (''[[Laylat al-Qadr]]''), during the last 10 days of Ramadan, the month during which they fast from sunrise until sunset.<ref name=tsonn>{{cite book|last=Sonn|first=Tamara|title=Islam : a brief history|year=2010|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8093-1|edition=Second ed.}}</ref> |
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==Views on religion== |
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In his essay "Why I Deny Religion, How Silly and Fantastic It Is, and Why I'm a Dedicated and Vociferous [[Brights movement|Bright]]," Randi, who identifies himself as an [[Atheism|atheist]],<ref name="Atheism">{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=August 5, 2005 |title=Our Stance on Atheism |journal=Swift |publisher=[[James Randi Educational Foundation]] (JREF) |type=Newsletter |accessdate=January 27, 2011 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/080505potential.html#14 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120423224515/http://www.randi.org/jr/080505potential.html#14 |archivedate=April 23, 2012}}</ref> has stated that many accounts in religious texts, including the [[Virgin birth of Jesus|virgin birth]], the miracles of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]], and the parting of the Red Sea by [[Moses]], are not believable. For example, Randi refers to the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Virgin Mary]] as being "impregnated by a ghost of some sort, and as a result produced a son who could walk on water, raise the dead, turn water into wine, and multiply loaves of bread and fishes" and questions how [[Adam and Eve]] "could have two sons, one of whom killed the other, and yet managed to populate the earth without committing incest." He writes that, compared to the Bible, "''The Wizard of Oz'' is more believable. And more fun."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=July 25, 2003 |title=Why I Deny Religion, How Silly and Fantastic It Is, and Why I'm a Dedicated and Vociferous Bright |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=October 9, 2013 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/072503.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20030801101731/http://www.randi.org/jr/072503.html |archivedate=August 1, 2003}}</ref> |
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The first chapter of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and in other occasions. This chapter, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited chapter of the Quran:<ref name=Britannica /> |
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In ''An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural'' (1995), he looks at a variety of spiritual practices skeptically. Of the meditation techniques of [[Prem Rawat|Guru Maharaj Ji]] he writes: "Only the very naive were convinced that they had been let in on some sort of celestial secret."<ref>[[#Randi 1995|Randi 1995]], [http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/Maharaj%20Ji.html "Maharaj Ji"]</ref> In 2003, he was one of the signers of the [[Humanism and Its Aspirations|Humanist Manifesto]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_III/Notable_Signers | title=Notable Signers |work=Humanism and Its Aspirations |publisher=[[American Humanist Association]] |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=September 28, 2012}}</ref> |
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:"All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Universe, the Beneficent, the Merciful and Master of the Day of Judgment, You alone We do worship and from You alone we do seek assistance, guide us to the right path, the path of those to whom You have granted blessings, those who are neither subject to Your anger nor have gone astray."(Quran 1:1-7) |
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==One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge== |
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{{Main|One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge}} |
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The James Randi Educational Foundation currently offers a prize of one million U.S. dollars to eligible applicants who can demonstrate a supernatural ability under agreed-upon [[Science|scientific]] testing criteria. Similar to the paranormal challenges of [[John Nevil Maskelyne]] and Houdini, in 1964, Randi put up $1,000 of his own money payable to anyone who could provide objective proof of the paranormal.<ref name="Poulsen">{{cite news |title=Skeptic Revamps $1M Psychic Prize |first=Kevin |last=Poulsen |authorlink=Kevin Poulsen |url=http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/01/72482 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast Publications|Condé Nast]] |location=San Francisco |date=January 12, 2007 |accessdate=April 11, 2008}}</ref> Since then, the prize money has grown to the current $1,000,000, and has formal published rules. No one has progressed past the preliminary test, which is set up with parameters agreed to by both Randi and the applicant. He refuses to accept any challengers who might suffer serious injury or death as a result of the testing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rules and Guidelines |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/component/content/article/37-static/254-jref-challenge-faq.html |publisher=JREF |accessdate=November 28, 2012}}</ref> As of April 1, 2007, only those with an already existing media profile and the backing of a reputable academic were allowed to apply for the challenge.<ref name="Poulsen" /> As a result, resources would not have to be spent testing obscure claimants and could instead focus on prominent alleged psychics and mediums such as [[Sylvia Browne]], [[Allison DuBois]] and [[John Edward]] with a campaign in the media.<ref name="Poulsen" /> |
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Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of the Quran verse 56:79: "none shall touch but those who are clean", some Muslism believe that a they must perform a ritual cleansing with water before touching a copy of the Quran although this view is not universal.<ref name=Britannica /> Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2012/02/afghan_quran_burning_protests_what_s_the_right_way_to_dispose_of_a_quran_.html Afghan Quran-burning protests: What’s the right way to dispose of a Quran? - Slate Magazine]</ref> |
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On ''[[Larry King Live]]'', March 6, 2001, [[Larry King]] asked Sylvia Browne if she would take the challenge and she agreed.<ref>{{cite interview |last1=Edward |first1=John |authorlink1=John Edward |last2=Jaroff |first2=Leon |last3=Browne |first3=Sylvia |authorlink3=Sylvia Browne |last4=Van Praagh |first4=James |authorlink4=James Van Praagh |last5=Boteach |first5=Shmuley |authorlink5=Shmuley Boteach |last6=Kurtz |first6=Paul |authorlink6=Paul Kurtz |last7=Van Zandt |first7=Clint |last8=Graff |first8=Dale |interviewer=[[Larry King]] |title=Are Psychics for Real? |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0103/06/lkl.00.html |program=''[[Larry King Live]]'' |callsign=[[CNN]] |date=March 6, 2001 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> Then Randi appeared with Browne on ''Larry King Live'' on September 3, 2001, and she again accepted the challenge.<ref name="CNN09032001">{{cite interview |last1=Randi |first1=James |last2=Browne |first2=Sylvia |interviewer=Larry King |title=Are Psychics Real? |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/03/lkl.00.html |program=''Larry King Live'' |callsign=CNN |date=September 3, 2001 |accessdate=August 18, 2006}}</ref> However, she has refused to be tested and Randi keeps a clock on his website recording the number of weeks that have passed since Browne accepted the challenge without following through.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/sylvia/ |title=The Sylvia Browne Clock |publisher=JREF |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> During ''Larry King Live'' on June 5, 2001, Randi challenged [[Rosemary Altea]] to undergo testing for the million dollars. However, Altea would not even address the question.<ref name="AlteaLarryKing">{{cite interview |last1=Altea |first1=Rosemary |authorlink1=Rosemary Altea |last2=Randi |first2=James |interviewer=Larry King |title=Spiritual Medium Versus Paranormal Skeptic |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0106/05/lkl.00.html |program=''Larry King Live'' |callsign=CNN |date=June 5, 2001 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> Instead Altea, in part, replied "I agree with what he says, that there are many, many people who claim to be spiritual mediums, they claim to talk to the dead. There are many people, we all know this. There are cheats and charlatans everywhere."<ref name="AlteaLarryKing" /> Then on January 26, 2007, Altea and Randi again appeared on ''Larry King Live''. Once again, she refused to answer whether or not she would take the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge.<ref>{{cite interview |last1=Altea |first1=Rosemary |last2=Randi |first2=James |interviewer=Larry King |title=The Controversy Swirling Around Psychic Sylvia Brown and Her Inaccurate Read on a Now Famous Kidnapping Victim |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0701/26/lkl.01.html |program=''Larry King Live'' |callsign=CNN |date=January 26, 2007 |accessdate=February 2, 2007}}</ref> In October 2007, John Edward appeared on ''Headline Prime'', hosted by [[Glenn Beck]]; when asked if he would take Randi's challenge, Edward responded, "I made a joke...would I allow myself to be tested by somebody who's got an adjective for a first name?"<ref>{{YouTube|id=eIUgArR8Jb4|title="Psychics Respond to James Randi"|link=no}}{{Dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref> |
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In Islam, most intellectual disciplines including Islamic theology, [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[Sufism|mysticism]] and [[Fiqh|Jurisprudence]] have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings.<ref name=Britannica /> |
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Randi asked British businessman Jim McCormick, the inventor of the bogus [[ADE 651]] bomb detector to take the challenge in October 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/swift-blog/231-a-direct-specific-challenge-from-james-randi-and-the-jref.html |title=A Direct, Specific, Challenge From James Randi and the JREF |last1=Randi |first1=James |year=2008 |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Blog |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> Randi issued a statement calling the ADE 651 "a useless quack device which cannot perform any other function than separating naive persons from their money. It's a fake, a scam, a swindle, and a blatant fraud. Prove me wrong and take the million dollars."<ref name="Times-Iraqis spent">{{cite news |title=Iraqis spent $80m on ADE651 bomb detectors described as useless |first1=Simon |last1=de Bruxelles |first2=Oliver |last2=August |authorlink2=Oliver August |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/technology/article1859809.ece |newspaper=[[The Times]] |location=London |date=November 28, 2009 |accessdate=January 22, 2010}}</ref> There was no response from McCormick.<ref name="nyt4nov09">{{cite news |title=Iraq Swears by Bomb Detector U.S. Sees as Useless |first=Rod |last=Nordland |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/04/world/middleeast/04sensors.html |work=The New York Times |date=November 3, 2009 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> According to Iraqi investigators, the ADE 651, which was corruptly sold to the Baghdad bomb squad, was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of civilians who died as a result of terrorist bombs which were not detected at checkpoints. On April 23, 2013, McCormick was convicted of three counts of fraud at the [[Old Bailey]] in London,<ref>{{cite news |title=James McCormick guilty of selling fake bomb detectors |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-22266051 |work=[[BBC News]] |location=London |date=April 23, 2013 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> and was subsequently sentenced to ten years imprisonment for his part in the ADE 651 scandal.<ref name="Booth">{{cite news |title=Fake bomb detector conman jailed for 10 years |first=Robert |last=Booth |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/may/02/fake-bomb-detector-conman-jailed |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |date=May 2, 2013 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> The ADE 651 was similar to devices exposed by Randi in the USA in the 1990s. |
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=== In Islamic Art === |
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JREF maintains a public log of past participants in the Million Dollar Challenge.<ref name="challenge-log">{{cite web |url=http://forums.randi.org/forumdisplay.php?f=43 |title=Challenge Applications |publisher=[[James Randi Educational Foundation|JREF Forum]] |accessdate=July 13, 2007}}</ref> |
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The Quran also inspired [[Islamic art]]s and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]] and [[Ottoman illumination|illumination]].<ref name=Britannica /> The Qurʼan is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurʼans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as [[mosque lamp]]s, metal work, [[Islamic pottery|pottery]] and single pages of calligraphy for [[muraqqa]]s or albums. |
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<gallery widths="210px" heights="210px"> |
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==Legal disputes== |
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File:Quran inscriptions on wall, Lodhi Gardens, Delhi.jpg|Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India |
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Randi has been involved in a variety of legal disputes but says that he has "never paid even one dollar or even one cent to anyone who ever sued me."<ref name="Randiwoo" /> However, he says, he has paid out large sums to personally defend himself in these suits. |
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File:Mosque lamp Met 91.1.1534.jpg|Typical glass and enamel [[mosque lamp]] with the ''[[Ayat an-Nur]]'' or "Verse of Light" (24:35) |
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File:Mausolées du groupe nord (Shah-i-Zinda, Samarcande) (6016470147).jpg|Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzebekistan |
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File:Muhammad ibn Mustafa Izmiri - Right Side of an Illuminated Double-page Incipit - Walters W5771B - Full Page.jpg|Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period |
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</gallery> |
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=== |
=== Inimitability === |
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{{main|I'jaz}} |
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According to Randi, Geller tried to sue Randi a number of times, accusing him of libel. Geller never won, save for a ruling in a Japanese court that ordered Randi to pay Geller one third of one percent of what Geller had demanded, but this ruling was canceled, and the matter dropped when Geller decided to concentrate on another legal matter.<ref name="Randiwoo" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uri-geller.com/psir.htm |title=An End to the ''Uri Geller vs. Randi & CSICOP'' Litigations? |last=Truzzi |first=Marcello |authorlink=Marcello Truzzi |website=UriGeller.com |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> |
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Inimitability of the Quran (or "''I'jaz''") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection—and, thereby, the central proof granted to [[Muhammad]] in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses challenges opponents to produce something like the Quran: "If men and sprites banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another" (17:88). So the suggestion is that if there are doubts concerning the divine authorship of the Quran come forward and create something like it. From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including [[Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani|al-Jurjani]] (d. 1078CE) and [[al-Baqillani]] (d. 1013CE) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations in individual level and in the history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.<ref name=leaman/><ref name=sophia>{{cite journal|last=Vasalou|first=Sophia|title=The Miraculous Eloquence of the Qur'an: General Trajectories and Individual Approaches|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2002|volume=4|issue=2|pages=23–53}}</ref> |
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{{wikisource|Geller v. Randi}} |
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In 1991, Randi commented that Uri Geller's public performances were of the same quality as those found on the backs of cereal boxes. Geller sued both Randi and CSICOP. CSICOP argued that the organization was not responsible for Randi's statements. The court agreed that including CSICOP was frivolous and dropped them from the action, leaving Randi to face the action alone. Geller was ordered to pay substantial damages to CSICOP.<ref name="csicop-suitdismissed">{{cite web |url=http://www.csicop.org/articles/uri_dis.html |title=Uri Geller Libel Suit Dismissed |month=August |year=1994 |website=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |publisher=Center for Inquiry |location=Amherst, NY |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070406080201/http://www.csicop.org/articles/uri_dis.html |archivedate=April 6, 2007 |accessdate=June 3, 2007}}</ref><ref name="skepfiles-suitdismssed">{{cite web |url=http://www.skepticfiles.org/skeptic/randi032.htm|title=Lawsuit Against CSICOP Dismissed |website=The Skeptic Tank |publisher=Fredric L. Rice |location=San Clementa, CA |accessdate=June 3, 2007}}</ref> Randi and Geller subsequently settled their dispute out of court, the details of which have been kept confidential. The settlement also included an agreement that Geller would not pursue Randi for the award in the Japanese case or other outstanding cases. |
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==Text and arrangement== |
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===Other=== |
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{{Main|Sura|Ayah}} |
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In 1996, Baltimore District Court found Randi liable for defaming Eldon Byrd for calling him a "convicted child molester" because, although Byrd had been found guilty of child pornography offences and admitted to molestation, the admission was part of a plea bargain so he was not actually convicted.{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}} No damages were awarded to Byrd.<ref>{{cite news |title=Randi Found Guilty of Defamation |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&s_site=miami&p_multi=MH&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB4CD802FEBC248&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |newspaper=[[The Miami Herald]] |date=June 9, 1993 |accessdate=April 20, 2009}}</ref> |
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[[File:FirstSurahKoran (fragment).jpg|thumb|230 px|First sura of the Quran, ''[[Al-Fatiha]]'', consisting of seven verses.]] |
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The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a ''[[sura]]''. Chapters are classified as [[Meccan sura|Meccan]] or [[Medinan sura|Medinan]], depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the [[Hijra (Islam)|migration]] of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a chapter classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Chapter titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the surah. Chapters are arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. The chapter arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each chapter except the ninth starts with the ''[[Basmala|Bismillah]]'' ({{lang|ar|بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم}}) an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the ''bismillah'' in the Quran, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.<ref>See: |
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*“Kur`an, al-,” ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online'' |
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*Allen (2000) p. 53</ref> |
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Each chapter consists of several verses, known as ''[[ayat]]'', which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from chapter to chapter. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the Quran is 6236, however, the number varies if the ''bismillahs'' are counted separately. |
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Late in 1996, Randi launched a libel suit against a Toronto-area psychic named Earl Gordon Curley.<ref name="jref-curley">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/hotline/1996/0085.html |title=Action initiated . . . |last=Randi |first=James |date=December 4, 1996 |work=James Randi Educational Foundation Info List |accessdate=October 29, 2006}}</ref> Curley had made multiple objectionable comments about Randi on [[Usenet]]. Despite suggesting to Randi on Usenet that Randi should sue – Curley's comments implying that if Randi did not sue, then his allegations must be true – Curley seemed entirely surprised when Randi actually retained Toronto's largest law firm and initiated legal proceedings. The suit was eventually dropped in 1998 when Earl Curley died at the age of 51.<ref name="jref-curley2">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/hotline/1998/0025.html |title=Curley Confirmation + Sony Corp. and ESP, More on Theremin |last=Randi |first=James |date=July 8, 1998 |work=James Randi Educational Foundation Info List |accessdate=October 29, 2006}}</ref> |
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In addition to and independent of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 ''[[juz']]'' (plural ''ajzāʼ'') can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names—which are the first few words by which the ''juzʼ'' starts. A ''[[juz']]'' is sometimes further divided into two ''[[hizb|ḥizb]]'' (plural ''aḥzāb''), and each ''hizb'' subdivided into four ''rubʻ al-ahzab''. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, ''[[manzil]]'' (plural ''manāzil''), for it to be recited in a week.<ref name="Britannica"/> |
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Allison DuBois, on whose life the television series ''[[Medium (TV series)|Medium]]'' was based, threatened Randi with legal action for using a photo of her from her website in his December 17, 2004, commentary without her permission.<ref name="swift-medium">{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=December 17, 2004 |title=Another Medium Well Done |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=October 29, 2006 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/121704no.html#5 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061230183340/http://www.randi.org/jr/121704no.html#5 |archivedate=December 30, 2006}}</ref> Randi removed the photo and now uses a [[caricature]] of DuBois when mentioning her on his site, beginning with his December 23, 2005, commentary.<ref name="swift-medium2">{{cite journal |last1=Randi |first1=James |last2=Hatchman |first2=Paul |date=December 23, 2005 |title=Medium Well Done |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=September 20, 2013 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/200512/122305hallelujah.html#i2 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051224233555/http://www.randi.org/jr/200512/122305hallelujah.html#i2 |archivedate=December 24, 2005}}</ref> |
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''[[Muqatta'at]]'', or the Quranic initials, are 14 different letter combinations of 14 Arabic letters that appear in the beginning of 29 chapters of the Quran. The meanings of these initials remain unclear. |
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[[Sniffex]], producer of a dowsing bomb detection device, sued Randi and the JREF in 2007 and lost.<ref name="jref-Sniffex">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/joom/content/view/204/1/#i1 |title=An Encouraging Development |last=Randi |first=James |date=July 25, 2008 |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Blog |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080822214803/http://www.randi.org/joom/content/view/204/1/#i1 |archivedate=August 22, 2008 |accessdate=October 29, 2008}}</ref> Sniffex sued Randi for his comments regarding a government test in which the Sniffex device failed. The company was later investigated and charged with fraud.<ref name="jref-Sniffex" /> |
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According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dukes|first=Kais|title=RE: Number of Unique Words in the Quran|url=http://www.mail-archive.com/comp-quran@comp.leeds.ac.uk/msg00223.html|work=www.mail-archive.com|accessdate=29 October 2012}}</ref> |
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==Personal life== |
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In 1987, Randi became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=September 17, 2001 |title=Commentary: Vapid Vultures, Conrad Comments, Grodin Goof, Sleuth Sylvia, Nostradamus Notes, Etc. |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=October 29, 2006 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/091701.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20010923194359/http://www.randi.org/jr/091701.html |archivedate=September 23, 2001}}</ref> Randi has said that one reason he became an American citizen was an incident while on tour with [[Alice Cooper]] where the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] searched the band's lockers during a performance. Nothing was found, yet the RCMP destroyed the room.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=July 15, 2005 |title=On the Soap Box |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=May 18, 2007 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/071505on.html#1 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050717025944/http://www.randi.org/jr/071505on.html |archivedate=July 17, 2005}}</ref> |
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== Contents == |
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In February 2006, Randi underwent [[coronary artery bypass surgery]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Randi |first1=James |last2=Wagg |first2=Jeff |date=February 10, 2006 |title=Randi Update |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=May 18, 2007 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-02/021006busted.html#i1 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060215193209/http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-02/021006busted.html |archivedate=February 15, 2006}}</ref> In early February 2006, he was declared to be in stable condition and "receiving excellent care" with his recovery proceeding well. The weekly commentary updates to his website were made by guests while he was hospitalized.<ref name="swift-guestauthor">{{cite journal |last=Bidlack |first=Hal |authorlink=Hal Bidlack |date=February 17, 2006 |title=Randi Update, The Big Tent, In Closing... |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=October 29, 2006 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-02/021706hal.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061231093108/http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-02/021706hal.html |archivedate=December 31, 2006}}</ref> Randi recovered after his surgery and was able to help organize and attend the 2007 [[The Amaz!ng Meeting|Amaz!ng Meeting]] in [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas, Nevada]] (an annual convention of scientists, magicians, [[Skepticism|skeptics]], atheists and [[Freethought|freethinkers]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=February 2, 2007 |title=In Conclusion... |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=October 29, 2007 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2007-02/020207geller.html#i11 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070204023934/http://randi.org/jr/2007-02/020207geller.html#i11 |archivedate=February 4, 2007}}</ref> |
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{{Main|God in Islam|Islamic eschatology|Prophets in the Quran|Quran and science|Legends and the Quran}} |
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The Quranic content is concerned with the basic beliefs of Islam which include the existence of [[God in Islam|God]] and the [[Islamic eschatology|resurrection]]. Narratives of the early [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]], ethical and legal subjects, historical events of the prophet’s time, charity and [[Salat|prayer]] also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and the historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message.<ref name=saeed>{{cite book|last=Saeed|first=Abdullah|title=The Qurʼan : an introduction|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415421249|pages=62}}</ref> |
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'''Monotheism''': The central theme of the Quran is [[monotheism]]. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (2:20,29,255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (13:16, 50:38, etc.) All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.<ref name=watt/><ref name=saeed/> |
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Randi was diagnosed with [[Colorectal cancer|intestinal cancer]] in June 2009.<ref name="OnAndOffChemo">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/swift-blog/832-randi-on-and-off-chemotherapy.html |title=Randi On (and Off) Chemotherapy |last=Thorp |first=Brandon K. |date=January 12, 2010 |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Blog |accessdate=July 23, 2013}}</ref> He had a ping pong ball-sized [[tumor]] removed from his [[intestine]]s during [[laparoscopic surgery]]. He announced the diagnosis a week later at The Amaz!ng Meeting 7 as well as the fact that he was scheduled to begin [[chemotherapy]] in the following weeks.<ref name="SF-Weekly">{{cite news |title=The Demystifying Adventures of the Amazing Randi |first=Michael J. |last=Mooney |url=http://www.sfweekly.com/2009-08-26/news/the-demystifying-adventures-of-the-amazing-randi/1 |newspaper=[[SF Weekly]] |location=San Francisco, CA |publisher=[[Village Voice Media]] |date=August 26, 2009 |accessdate=September 5, 2009}} Lengthy article which reported: "He has intestinal cancer and may not have long to live."</ref> He also said at the conference: "One day, I'm gonna die. That's all there is to it. Hey, it's too bad, but I've got to make room. I'm using a lot of oxygen and such – I think it's good use of oxygen myself, but of course, I'm a little prejudiced on the matter."<ref name="SF-Weekly" /> Randi also said that after he is gone he does not want his fans to bother with a museum of magic named after him or burying him in a fancy tomb. Instead, he said, "I want to be cremated, and I want my ashes blown in Uri Geller's eyes."<ref name="SF-Weekly" /> Randi underwent his final chemotherapy session on December 31, 2009, as he explained in a January 12, 2010, video in which he related that his chemotherapy experience was not as unpleasant as he had imagined.<ref name="OnAndOffChemo" /> In a video posted April 12, 2010, Randi stated that he has been given a clean bill of health.<ref>{{YouTube|id=_WyzM_TsIXc|title="James Randi Speaks Homeopathy Week 2010"|link=no}}</ref> |
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[[File:Quran rzabasi4.JPG|thumb|Written in the 12th century.]] |
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The Quran uses [[Cosmological argument|cosmological]] and contigency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe, is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?" (67:3) <ref name=leaman/> |
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In a March 21, 2010, blog entry, Randi [[coming out|came out]] as [[Homosexual|gay]], a move he explained was inspired by seeing the 2008 biographical drama film ''[[Milk (film)|Milk]]'', in which [[Sean Penn]] portrayed [[Harvey Milk]], the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in California.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/site/index.php/swift-blog/914-how-to-say-it.html |title=How To Say It? |last=Randi |first=James |date=March 21, 2010 |work=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Blog |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite podcast |url=http://www.forgoodreason.org/james_randi_a_skeptic_comes_out_at_81 |title=James Randi – A Skeptic Comes Out at 81 |website=For Good Reason |publisher=JREF |host=[[D. J. Grothe|Grothe, D. J.]] |format=[[MP3]] |date=March 21, 2010 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> During an appearance at the annual skeptic's convention The Amazing Meeting (TAM) on July 12, 2013, Randi announced that he and his partner of 27 years, artist Deyvi Pena, had been married in Washington, D.C., 10 days previously.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2013/07/12/randi-got-married/ |title=Randi got married |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |authorlink=Jerry Coyne |date=July 12, 2013 |work=Why Evolution is True |publisher=[[WordPress]] |type=Blog |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skepticalabyss.com/?tag=tam-randi-amazing-meeti-g |title=Live Blogging Tam Day Two (Friday) |date=July 12, 2013 |work=The Skeptical Abyss |publisher=WordPress |type=Blog |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> |
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'''Eschatology''': The doctrine of the [[Islamic eschatology|last day]] and [[eschatology]] (the final fate of the universe) may be reckoned as the second great doctrine of the Quran.<ref name=watt/> It is estimated that around a full one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time.<ref name=rippin/> There is a reference of the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and the belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "Believe in God and the last day".<ref name=haleem>{{cite book|last=Haleem|first=Muhammad Abdel|title=Understanding the Qur'an : themes and style|year=2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=9781860646508|pages=82}}</ref> A number of chapters such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some of the chapters indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Chapter 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing."<ref name=leaman/> |
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In 2012, magician [[Penn Jillette]] announced that he was working on a biography of Randi.<ref name="ReligionMorality">{{cite interview |last=Jillette |first=Penn |authorlink=Penn Jillette |interviewer=Ryan Shaffer |title=Morality, Religion and Bullsh*t: An Interview with Penn Jillette |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/HNN/details/2012-12-morality-religion-and-bullsht-an-interview-with-penn |year=2012 |month=December |publisher=American Humanist Association |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=October 9, 2013}} |
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</ref> |
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The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:<ref name=watt/> |
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==Awards and honors== |
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:"The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described. [...] The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life." |
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[[Image:JREF TAM9 Beard Photo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The James Randi Beard Photo, taken at The JREF Amaz!ng Meeting 9 ("TAM 9 From Outer Space") July 16, 2011]] |
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* In 1981, asteroid [[3163 Randi]] was named after Randi, who has always been an active [[Amateur astronomy|amateur observer]]. His friend [[Carl Sagan]] encouraged his interest.<ref name="TorontoStar1986" /> |
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* MacArthur Foundation Fellowship for his investigations of the claims of Uri Geller and TV "faith healers," 1986<ref name="macfound">{{cite web |url=http://www.macfound.org/site/c.lkLXJ8MQKrH/b.1142693/k.79E6/Fellows_List__August_1986.htm |title=Fellows List – August 1986 |website=MacArthur Foundation |publisher=[[John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation]] |location=Chicago, IL |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110719140856/http://www.macfound.org/site/c.lkLXJ8MQKrH/b.1142693/k.79E6/Fellows_List__August_1986.htm |archivedate=July 19, 2011 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}</ref> |
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* [[American Physical Society]] Joseph A. Burton Forum Award, 1989<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aps.org/programs/honors/awards/burton.cfm |title=Joseph A. Burton Forum Award|publisher=American Physical Society |location=College Park, MD |accessdate=June 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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* [[Richard Dawkins Award]], 2003<ref name="Randiofficialbio" /> |
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* [[Philip J. Klass#The Philip J. Klass Award|Philip J. Klass Award]], 2007<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randi |first=James |date=March 23, 2007 |title=In Closing |journal=Swift |publisher=JREF |type=Newsletter |accessdate=May 18, 2007 |url=http://www.randi.org/jr/2007-03/032307tx.html#i11 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070326234436/http://www.randi.org/jr/2007-03/032307tx.html#i11 |archivedate=March 26, 2007}}</ref> |
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* [[Independent Investigations Group]] (IIG) awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award, August 2007. Previous recipients Carl Sagan and Harry Houdini.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iigwest.com/iigawards/2008/index.html |title=The 2008 IIG Awards |date=August 21, 2010 |website=The Independent Investigations Group |publisher=[[Independent Investigations Group]] |location=Hollywood, CA |accessdate=July 1, 2011}}</ref> |
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* [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] In Praise of Reason Award, 2009 |
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* Elected a Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Fellow, 2010<ref>{{cite press release |last=Bupp |first=Nathan |title=Sixteen Notable Figures in Science and Skepticism Elected CSI Fellows |url=http://www.csicop.org/news/press_releases/show/sixteen_notable_figures_in_science_and_skepticism_elected_csi_fellows |date=January 12, 2010 |publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |location=Amherst, NY |accessdate=February 12, 2010}}</ref> |
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* [[Academy of Magical Arts]] Lifetime Achievement Fellowship, April 2012<ref>{{cite web |url=http://themandalamag.com/2012/04/02/the-academy-of-magical-arts-awards-results/ |title=The Academy of Magical Arts Awards Results |last=McMaster |first=Shawn |date=April 2, 2012 |website=The Mandala |publisher=Shawn McMaster |accessdate=April 6, 2012}}</ref> |
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* [[American Humanist Association]] Lifetime Achievement Award, June 2012<ref>{{cite press release |last=Magee |first=Brian |title=Atheists 'Marching' to New Orleans for 71st Annual American Humanist Association Conference |url=http://members.neworleanscvb.com/CustPage.aspx?pagename=special-event-invitations&ID=44 |date=May 23, 2012 |publisher=American Humanist Association |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref> |
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The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.<ref name=rcmartin/> |
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==World records== |
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The following are [[Guinness World Records|Guinness world records]]: |
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* Randi was in a sealed casket underwater for an hour and 44 minutes, which broke Harry Houdini's record of one hour and 33 minutes set on August 5, 1926.<ref name="TorontoStar1986" /> |
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* Randi was encased in a block of ice for 55 minutes.<ref name="TorontoStar1986" /> |
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'''Prophets''': According to Qur'an God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. Prophets, or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty."(41:43). The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets, angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in 42:51, in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will."<ref name=rippin/><ref name=rcmartin>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Richard C.|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world|year=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|isbn=0028656032|pages=568-62 (By Farid Esack)|url=http://books.google.com/books?isbn=0028656032|edition=[Online-Ausg.].}}</ref> |
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==Bibliography== |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Randi |first1=James |last2=Sugar |first2=Bert Randolph |authorlink2=Bert Sugar |title=Houdini, His Life and Art |year=1976 |publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]] |location=New York |isbn=0-448-12552-8 |oclc=3017457 |ref=Randi & Sugar}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |others=Introduction by [[Isaac Asimov]] |title=[[Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions|Flim-Flam!: Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions]] |year=1982 |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=0-87975-198-3 |oclc=9066769 |lccn=82060953 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1982a}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |title=Test Your ESP Potential: A Complete Kit With Instructions, Scorecards, and Apparatus |year=1982 |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |location=New York |isbn=0-486-24269-2 |oclc=7924713 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1982b}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |title=[[The Truth About Uri Geller]] |origyear=Originally published 1975 as ''The Magic of Uri Geller''; New York: [[Ballantine Books]] |year=1982 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87975-199-1 |oclc=9164994 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1982c}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |others=Foreword by [[Carl Sagan]] |title=[[The Faith Healers]] |year=1987 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=0-87975-369-2 |oclc=16353426 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1987}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |title=The Magic World of the Amazing Randi |year=1989 |publisher=Adams Media Corporation |location=Holbrook, MA |isbn=1-55850-982-8 |oclc=21303371 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1989}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |title=[[The Mask of Nostradamus: The Prophecies of the World's Most Famous Seer]] |year=1990 |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |location= |isbn=0-684-19056-7 |oclc=824193656 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1990}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |title=James Randi: Psychic Investigator |year=1991 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Boxtree Ltd]] |location=London |isbn=1-85283-144-8 |oclc=26359284 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1991}} Companion book to the [[Open Media]]/[[ITV Granada|Granada Television]] series. |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |title=[[Conjuring (book)|Conjuring: Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, MAGIC!]] |edition=1st |year=1992 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York |isbn=0-312-09771-9 |oclc=640909937 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1992}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |others=Introduction by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] |title=[[An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural]] |edition=1st |year=1995 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |isbn=0-312-15119-5 |oclc=35978760 |author-mask=2 |ref=Randi 1995}} ([http://randi.org/encyclopedia/ Online version]) |
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* ''A Magician in the Laboratory''. (Forthcoming<ref name="randi1">{{cite web |url=http://www.randi.org/documents/randiresume.pdf |title=JAMES RANDI – Bio Information |publisher=JREF |format=PDF |accessdate=December 20, 2010}}</ref>) |
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* ''Wrong!'' (Forthcoming<ref name="randi1" />) |
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{{Refend}} |
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'''Ethico-Religious concepts''': Belief is the center of the sphere of positive moral properties in the Quran. A number of scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of the words meaning 'belief' and 'believer' in the Quran <ref name=toshihiko>{{cite book|last=Izutsu|first=Toshihiko|title=Ethico-religious concepts in the Qur'an|year=2007|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=0773524274|pages=184|edition=Repr. 2007}}</ref> The Ethico-legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability and the belief in each human's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who "spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public" are promised that they "shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve" (2:274). It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce and inheritance. A number of practices such as usury and gambling are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of the Islamic law, or sharia. Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration.<ref name=jecampo/><ref name=rcmartin/> The term used for charity, ''Zakat'', actually means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification.<ref name=tsonn/><ref>[http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.arberry/9:103 Quran 9:103]</ref> |
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==TV and film== |
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== Literary style == |
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===Actor=== |
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The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the chapters and verses employ [[phonetics|phonetic]] and [[theme (literature)|thematic]] structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims{{Who|date=February 2010}} assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.<ref name = Issa>[[Issa Boullata]], "Literary Structure of Quran", ''Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān, vol.3 p.192, 204</ref> |
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* ''[[Good to See You Again, Alice Cooper]]'' (1974) as the Dentist/Executioner |
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* ''[[Ragtime (film)|Ragtime]]'' (1981) (stunt coordinator: Houdini) |
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* ''[[Penn & Teller]]'s Invisible Thread'' (1987) (TV) |
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* ''[[Penn & Teller Get Killed]]'' (1989) as the 3rd Rope Holder |
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* ''Beyond Desire'' (1994) as the Coroner |
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The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose, however, this description runs the risk of compromising the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is certainly more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan chapters, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Chapter 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.<ref name=rippin /><ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=369&letter=K&search=Quran Jewishencyclopedia.com] – Körner, Moses B. Eliezer</ref> |
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===Himself=== |
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* ''[[Wonderama]]'' (1959–1967) (TV) as The Amazing Randi |
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* ''[[I've Got a Secret]]'' (1965) (TV) as The Amazing Randi |
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* ''[[Happy Days]]'' – "The Magic Show" (1978) as the Amazing Randi<ref>{{cite episode |title=The Magic Show |url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/happy-days-1978/episode-13-season-6/magic/100197 |accessdate=October 9, 2013 |series=[[Happy Days]] |network=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] |date=December 5, 1978 |season=6 |number=13}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Zembla]]'', 'De trucs van Char' (''The tricks [[Char Margolis|Char]] uses''). (March 2008)<ref>{{Wayback|url=http://zembla.vara.nl/Voorpagina.1975.0.html?&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=5316&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=1974&cHash=0e36f258ac|title="''De trucs van Char, het medium – 23 maart 2008''"|date=20080324163226}}</ref> |
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* ''ZDF German TV'' (2007) |
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* ''Wild Wild Web'' (1999) |
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* ''[[West 57th (TV series)|West 57th]]'' (1980s) |
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* ''Welt der Wunder – Kraft der Gedanken'' (January 2008) |
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* ''[[Today (U.S. TV program)|Today]]'' (several appearances) |
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* ''[[The Don Lane Show]]'' (Australia) |
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* ''[[That's My Line]]'' (1981) (Appeared with [[James Hydrick]]) |
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* ''[[The View (U.S. TV series)|The View]]'' ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]) multiple appearances 1997–present |
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* ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson]]'' (32 appearances between 1973 and 1993) |
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* ''[[The Secret Cabaret]]'' (produced by [[Open Media]] for [[Channel 4]] in the UK) |
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* ''[[The Power of Belief]]'' (October 6, 1998) ([[ABC News]] Special) (TV) |
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* ''[[People are Talking]]'' (1980s) |
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* ''[[The Patterson Show]]'' (1970s) |
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* ''The Art of Magic'' (1998) (TV) |
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* ''The Ultimate Psychic Challenge'' ([[Discovery Channel]]/Channel 4) (2003) |
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* ''Spotlight on James Randi'' (2002) (TV) |
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* ''[[Secrets of the Super Psychics]]'' (Channel 4/[[TLC (TV network)|The Learning Channel]]), produced by Open Media, 1997/8 |
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* ''[[Scams, Schemes, and Scoundrels]]'' (A&E Special) (March 30, 1997) |
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* ''RAI TV'' Italy (1991) |
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* ''[[Politically Incorrect]]'' with [[Bill Maher]] |
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* ''[[Penn & Teller: Bullshit!]]'' several appearances |
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** "End of the World" (2003) TV Episode |
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** "ESP" (2003) TV Episode |
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** "Signs from Heaven" (2005) TV Episode |
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* ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'' 2 episodes |
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* ''[[Lawrence Leung's Unbelievable]]'' (Australia) TV Episode |
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* ''[[Nova (TV series)|Nova]]'': ''[[Secrets of the Psychics]]'' (1993) |
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* ''Mitä ihmettä?'' (Finland) (2003) TV Series |
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* ''[[Midday (Australian TV program)|Midday]]'' (Australia) (1990s) |
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* ''Magic or Miracle?'' (1983) TV special |
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* ''Magic'' (2004) (mini) TV Series |
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* ''[[Larry King Live]]'' ([[CNN]]) (June 5, 2001, September 3, 2001, January 26, 2007, several more) |
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* ''James Randi: Psychic Investigator'' (1991) (Open Media series for the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] network) |
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* ''[[James Randi Budapesten]]'' – Hungarian documentary |
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* ''[[Inside Edition]]'' – (1991, 2006, and 2007) TV |
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* ''[[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]]'' – [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathy.shtml "Homeopathy: The Test"] (2002) BBC/UK TV Episode |
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* ''Dead Men Talking'' ([[The Biography Channel]]) (2007) |
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* ''Fornemmelse for snyd'' (2003) TV Series (also archive footage) Denmark |
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* ''[[Extraordinary People (2003 TV series)|Extraordinary People]]'' – "The Million Dollar Mind Reader" (September 2008).<ref>{{cite episode |title=The Million Dollar Mind Reader |url=http://www.channel5.com/shows/extraordinary-people/episodes/extraordinary-people-the-million-dollar-mind-reader |accessdate=June 15, 2009 |series=[[Extraordinary People (2003 TV series)|Extraordinary People]] |network=[[Channel 5 (UK)|Channel 5]] |date=November 23, 2011}}</ref> |
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* ''Exploring Psychic Powers... Live'' (June 7, 1989; hosted by [[Bill Bixby]]) |
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* ''[[CBS This Morning]]'' (1990s) |
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* ''[[Anderson Cooper 360°]]'', [[CNN]] (January 19, 2007, and January 30, 2007)<ref>{{cite interview |last=Randi |first=James |interviewer=[[Anderson Cooper]] |title=Psychic Powers Debunked in Shawn Hornbeck Case? |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0701/19/acd.01.html |program=[[Anderson Cooper 360°]] |callsign=CNN |date=January 19, 2007 |accessdate=June 30, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite interview |last1=Rossi |first1=Linda |last2=Randi |first2=James |interviewer=Anderson Cooper |title=Psychic Reality Check |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0701/30/acd.01.html |program=Anderson Cooper 360° |callsign=CNN |date=January 30, 2007 |accessdate=June 30, 2012}}</ref> |
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* ''[[A Question of Miracles]]'' ([[HBO]]) (1999) |
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* ''[[20/20 (U.S. TV series)|20/20]]'' ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]) (May 11, 2007) <ref>{{cite news |title=Selling Salvation? |first1=Jim |last1=Avila |authorlink1=Jim Avila |first2=Glenn |last2=Ruppel |first3=Donna |last3=Hunter |url=http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=3164858&page=1 |work=[[20/20 (U.S. TV series)|20/20]] |publisher=ABC |date=May 11, 2007 |accessdate=August 24, 2013}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Dilbert (TV series)|Dilbert]]'' – parodied in "The Infomercial" (1999) TV Episode |
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* An Honest Liar: The Amazing Randi Story (2013) |
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The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.<ref name="Britannica"/> The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to have lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and presence of repetition.<ref name=blomm>"The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one {{sic|?|hide=y|over-|arching}} principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order.... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read." ''Approaches to the Asian Classics,'' Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 65</ref><ref name=pepys>Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!" http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21</ref> [[Michael Sells]], citing the work of the critic [[Norman O. Brown]], acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression – its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase – is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated.<ref name = ApproachQuran>Michael Sells, ''Approaching the Qur'ān'' (White Cloud Press, 1999)</ref><ref>Norman O. Brown, "The Apocalypse of Islam". ''Social Text'' 3:8 (1983–1984)</ref> Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device. |
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==Other media== |
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* In 2007, Randi delivered a talk at [[TED (conference)|TED]] in which he discussed psychic fraud, homeopathy, and his foundation's Million Dollar Challenge.<ref name="takedown" /> |
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A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild the Quran demonstrates this meta-textuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages when the Quran refers to itself as revelation (''tanzil''), remembrance (''dhikr''), news (''naba'''), criterion (''furqan'') in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?" (21:50), or in the frequent appearance of the 'Say' tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g. "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance' ", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?' "). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan chapters.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wild|first=ed. by Stefan|title=Self-referentiality in the Qur'an|year=2006|publisher=Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden|isbn=3447053836}}</ref> |
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* Randi can be heard speaking an introduction on [[Tommy Finke]]'s song "Poet der Affen/Poet of the Apes," released on the album of the same name in 2010. The message was recorded by Randi and sent to Finke via e-mail.<ref>{{YouTube|id=62C-ItkcszE|title="Poet der Affen / Poet of the Apes"|link=no}}</ref> |
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* A tribute to Randi's years of work combating pseudoscience has led to the creation of Eddie and James Horsfall's song, "Go Go Randi" (2012).<ref>{{YouTube|id=X-TjLuMenFM|title="Go Go Randi!"|link=no}}</ref> |
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== Interpretation == |
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{{Main|Tafsir}} |
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[[File:Tapurian Qur'an (Al-Kusar).PNG|thumb|280px|An early interpretation of Chapter 108 of the Quran]] |
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The Quran has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (''tafsīr''), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance".<ref>[http://www.almizan.org/new/introduction.asp?TitleText=Introduction Preface of Al'-Mizan], reference is to [[Allameh Tabatabaei]] {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> |
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Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.<ref>{{Cite quran|2|151|style=nosup}}</ref> Other early exegetes included a few [[Companions of Muhammad]], like ʻ[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], ʻ[[Abdullah ibn Abbas]], ʻ[[Abdullah ibn Umar]] and [[Ubayy ibn Kab|Ubayy ibn Kaʻb]]. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (''[[hadith]]'') of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.<ref>[http://www.almizan.org/new/introduction.asp?TitleText=Introduction Tafseer Al-Mizan] {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> |
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Because the Quran is spoken in [[classical Arabic]], many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "[[naskh (exegesis)|abrogating]]" (''nāsikh'') the earlier text (''mansūkh'').<ref>[http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=2656&CATE=1 How can there be abrogation in the Quran?]</ref><ref>[http://www.mostmerciful.com/abrogation-and-substitution.htm Are the verses of the Qur'an Abrogated and/or Substituted?]</ref> Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran.<ref>{{cite web|last=Islahi|first=Amin Ahsan|title=Abrogation in the Qur’ān|url=http://www.monthly-renaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?id=426|work=Renaissance Journal|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref> The [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] has published a 10-volume Urdu commentary on the Quran, with the name ''Tafseer e Kabir''.<ref>[https://ia801704.us.archive.org/3/items/TafseerKabeerMirzaBashiruddinMahmoodAhmad/Tafseer%20%20Kabeer%20Mirza%20%20Bashiruddin%20Mahmood%20Ahmad.pdf Tafsir Kabeer by Mirza Bashiruddin Mahmood Ahmad]</ref> |
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=== Esoteric Interpretation === |
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{{Main|Esoteric interpretation of the Quran}} |
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Esoteric or [[sufism|Sufi]] interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent (''zahir'') point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (''batin'') and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence.<ref name=alangodlas>{{cite book|last=Godlas|first=Alan|title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an|year=2008|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1405188200|pages=350–362|edition=Pbk. ed.}}</ref> According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are 'allusions' (''isharat'') rather than explanations (''tafsir''). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.<ref name=kristin>{{cite book|last=Sands|first=Kristin Zahra|title=Sufi commentaries on the Qur'an in classical Islam|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415366852|edition=1. publ., transferred to digital print.}}</ref> |
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Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran. Verse 7:143 of the Quran states: |
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:"when Moses came at the time we appointed, and his Lord spoke to him, he said, 'My Lord, show yourself to me! Let me see you! He said, 'you shall not see me but look at that mountain, if it remains standing firm you will see me.' When his Lord revealed Himself to the mountain, He made it crumble. Moses fell down unconscious. When he recovered, he said, 'Glory be to you! I repent to you! I am the first to believe!'" (Quran 7:143) |
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Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.<ref name=keeler>{{cite journal|last=Keeler|first=Annabel|title=Sufi ''tafsir'' as a Mirror: al-Qushayri the murshid in his Lataif al-isharat|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2006|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–21}}</ref> |
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[[Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei]] says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ''ta'wil'' indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (''[[tanzil]]''), as opposed to ''ta'wil'', is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ''ta'wil'', which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ''ta'wil'', or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.<ref name="Ta'wil">[http://almizan.org/new/special/principles.asp Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, The Principles of Interpretation of the Quran] {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref><ref name="The Meaning">[http://almizan.org/Discourses/QD21.asp Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, Topic: Decisive and Ambiguous verses and "ta'wil"] {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> |
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According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like the Prophet and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God"(3:7 ) remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.<ref name="The Meaning"/> |
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According to [[Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei|Tabatabaei]], there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ''[[ta'wil]]'' refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to [[God]] and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to [[God in Islam|God]]. Unacceptable ''ta'wil'' is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ''ta'wil'' has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.<ref name="The Meaning"/><ref name="Tabatabaee">[http://www.maaref-foundation.com/english/beliefs/quran/05.htm Tabatabaee (1988), pp. 37–45]</ref> |
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==== History of Sufi commentaries ==== |
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One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021 CE) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named ''haqaiq al-tafsir'' ("Truths of Exegesis") which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) ''kash al-asrar'' ("the unveiling of the secrets").<ref name=alangodlas/> [[Rumi]] (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book ''Mathnawi''. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in ''Mathnawi'', which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently.<ref name=jmojaddedi>{{cite book|last=Mojaddedi|first=Jawid|title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an|year=2008|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1405188200|pages=363–373|edition=Pbk. ed.}}</ref> Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam.<ref name=jelias>{{cite journal|last=Elias|first=Jamal|title=Sufi ''tafsir'' Reconsidered: Exploring the Development of a Genre|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2010|volume=12|pages=41–55}}</ref> Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appears in 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ''ruh al-Bayan'' (the Spirit of Elucidation) is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali), all woven together in ''Hafiz'', a Persian poetry form.<ref name=jelias/> |
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===Levels of meaning=== |
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[[File:Quran rzabasi1.JPG|thumb|9th-century Quran in [[Reza Abbasi Museum]]]] |
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Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other [[Islamic philosophy|Muslim philosophers]] believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.<ref name="Corbin 1993, p.7">Corbin (1993), p.7</ref> For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. [[Henry Corbin]] narrates a ''[[hadith]]'' that goes back to [[Muhammad]]: <blockquote>"The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."<ref name="Corbin 1993, p.7"/></blockquote> |
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According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.<ref>[http://www.almizan.org/new/special/Aspects.asp Tabatabaee, Tafsir Al-Mizan] {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in [[Islamic philosophy]], because [[gnosiology]] itself goes hand in hand with [[prophet#Islam|prophetology]].<ref>Corbin (1993), p.13</ref> |
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Commentaries dealing with the ''[[Zahir (Islam)|zahir]]'' (outward aspects) of the text are called ''tafsir'', and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the ''[[Batin (Islam)|batin]]'' are called ''[[Esoteric interpretation of the Quran|ta'wil]]'' (“interpretation” or “explanation”), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God.<ref name="Britannica"/> In contrast, [[Quranic literalism]], followed by [[Salafis]] and [[Zahiri]]s, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning. |
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== Translations == |
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{{Main|Quran translations}} |
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{{See also|List of translations of the Quran}} |
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Translation of the Quran has always been a problematic and difficult issue. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.<ref name="slate">{{cite web | accessdate=21 November 2008 | url=http://www.slate.com/id/2204849/?from=rss | work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | last=Aslan | first=Reza | title=How To Read the Quran | date=20 November 2008}}</ref> Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a [[Polysemy|range of meanings]] depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.<ref name =leaman /> |
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Nevertheless, the Quran has been [[translation|translated]] into most African, Asian and European languages.<ref name =leaman /> The first translator of the Quran was [[Salman the Persian]], who translated surat ''[[al-Fatiha]]'' into [[Persian language|Persian]] during the seventh century.<ref>An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo, Matba‘at at-Tadamun n.d.), 380.</ref> Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 CE in Alwar ([[Sindh]], [[India]] now [[Pakistan]]) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.<ref>[http://www.monthlycrescent.com/understanding-the-quran/english-translations-of-the-quran/ Monthlycrescent.com]</ref> |
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The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in [[Persian language]]. The [[Samanid Empire|Samanid]] king, [[Mansur I]] (961-976), ordered a group of scholars from [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] to translate the [[Tafsir al-Tabari]], originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari|Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari]] wrote a complete ''[[tafsir]]'' of the Quran in Persian. In 12th century, Abu Hafas Najmuddin Umar al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times. |
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Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]], as both [[Muhammad's letters to the Heads-of-State|received letters by Muhammad]] containing verses from the Quran.<ref name = leaman /> In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer. |
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In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.<ref name =leaman /> In 2010, the ''[[Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review]]'' reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.<ref>{{Cite news |
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|title = More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran |
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|newspaper = Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review |
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|date = 12 August 2010 |
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|url =http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=more-than-300-publishers-visit-koran-exhibition-in-iran-2010-08-12 |
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[[Robert of Ketton]]'s 1143 translation of the Quran for [[Peter the Venerable]], ''[[Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete]]'', was the first into a Western language ([[Latin]]).<ref>{{cite book |last= Bloom | first= Jonathan |coauthor=Blair, Sheila | year=2002 | title=Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | page=42}}</ref> |
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[[Alexander Ross (writer)|Alexander Ross]] offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of ''[[L'Alcoran de Mahomet]]'' (1647) by [[Andre du Ryer]]. In 1734, [[George Sale]] produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by [[Richard Bell (Arabist)|Richard Bell]] in 1937, and yet another by [[Arthur John Arberry]] in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. The [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] has published translations of the Quran in 50 different languages<ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/links/translations.html Translations of the Quran]</ref> besides a [[The English Commentary of the Holy Quran|five-volume English commentary]] and a simple [[The Holy Quran - Arabic Text and English translation|English translation of the Quran]].<ref>[https://ia601705.us.archive.org/31/items/TafseerEngCommQuranLong/Tafseer%20Eng_Comm_Quran%20Long.pdf]</ref> |
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As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "[[you]]".<ref>{{cite web|title=Surah 3 – Read Quran Online|url=http://readquranonline.info/surah003.html|accessdate=21 November 2010}}</ref> |
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> |
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File:Ilkhanid Quran.jpg|Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] Era. |
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File:Alcoran de Mahomet 1647.jpg|The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: ''[[L'Alcoran de Mahomet]]'', [[André du Ryer]], 1647. |
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File:Koran by Megerlein 1772.jpg|Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran. |
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File:Chinese quran.jpg|Verses 33 and 34 of surat [[Ya Sin|Yā Sīn]] in this Chinese translation of the Quran. |
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</gallery> |
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== Recitation == |
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=== Rules of recitation === |
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{{See also|Tajwid}} |
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The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named ''[[Tajwid]]'' which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to [[elision]]s, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.<ref name=leaman/> |
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In order to avoid incorrect articulation reciters who are not native speakers of Arabic language try to follow a training in countries such as Egypt or Saudi Arabia. The recitations of a few of Egyptian reciters were highly influential in the art of recitation. The region of Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah from Jakarta.<ref name=leaman/> |
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There are two types of recitation: ''murattal'' is at a slower pace, used for study and practice. ''Mujawwad'' refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the ''mujawwad'' reciter seeks to involve the listeners.<ref name=nelson>{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=Kristina|title=The art of reciting the Qur'an|year=2001|publisher=American Univ. in Cairo Press|location=Cairo [u.a.]|isbn=9774245946|edition=New}}</ref> |
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=== Variant readings === |
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{{See also|Qira'at}} |
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[[File:Qur'an folio 11th century kufic.jpg|thumb|250px|A page of Quran with vocalization marks]] |
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Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds were introduced into the [[Arabic language]] by the end of the ninth century. The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, therefore several recitations remain acceptable. The variation in readings of the text permitted by the nature of the defective vocalization led to an increase in the number of readings during the 10th century. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, [[Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid|Ibn Mujāhid]], is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven eighth-century readers from the cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Kufa]], [[Basra]] and [[Damascus]]. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or 10, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven "''aḥruf''" (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d.796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, ʻĀṣim (Kufa, d. 745) and Nāfi (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo (1924) uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the eighth-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.<ref name=rippin/><ref name=melchert2>{{cite journal|last=Melchert|first=Christopher|title=Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings|journal=Studia Islamica|year=2000|issue=91|pages=5–22}}</ref> |
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The variant readings of the Quran do not relate to any textual variation, instead, all of the readings pertain to differences in the vocalization of the same text.<ref name=rippin /> According to Melchert, the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.<ref name=Melchert>{{cite journal|last=Melchert|first=Christopher|title=The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another|journal=Journal of Quranic Studies|year=2008|volume=10|issue=2|pages=73–87}}</ref> |
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Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes. Some of Nasser's categories are internal vowels, long vowels, [[gemination]] ([[shaddah]]), [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] and [[Alternation (linguistics)|alternation]].<ref name=nasser>{{cite book|last=Hekmat Nasser|first=Shady|title=The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran: The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh|year=2012|publisher=Brill Academic Pub|isbn=9004240810}}</ref> |
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Occasionally, an early Qur'an shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the eighth century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir of Damascus.<ref name=dutton>{{cite journal|last=Dutton|first=Yasin|title=An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2001|volume=3|issue=2|pages=71–89}}</ref> Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of [[homs|himsi]] region.<ref name=rabb>{{cite journal|last=Rabb|first=Intisar|title=Non-Canonical Readings of the Qur'an: Recognition and Authenticity (The Ḥimṣī Reading)|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2006|volume=8|issue=2|pages=88–127}}</ref> |
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== Writing and printing == |
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=== Writing === |
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Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphers]] and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in ''[[Hijazi script|Ḥijāzī]]''-type script. The ''Hijazi'' style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as ''[[Kufic]]'' scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore chose simpler writing styles. From the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the ''[[Naskh (script)|naskh]]'', ''[[muhaqqaq]]'', ''rayḥānī'' and, on rarer occasions, the ''thuluth'' script. ''Naskh'' was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Spain, the ''[[Maghrebi script|Maghribī]]'' style was popular. More distinct is the ''Bihari'' script which was used solely in the north of India. ''[[Nastaʿlīq script|Nastaʻlīq]]'' style was also rarely used in Persian world.<ref name=rippin/><ref>Peter G. Riddell, Tony Street, Anthony Hearle Johns, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H3nHpsDBm6QC&pg=PA170&dq=Islam+block+printing&as_brr=3&ei=QTncS9WLKp2WyAS2yPnGCQ&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Islam: essays on scripture, thought and society : a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns''], pp. 170–174, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5, ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5</ref> |
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In the beginning, the Quran did not have vocalization markings. The system of vocalization, as we know it today, seems to have been introduced towards the end of the ninth century. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or ''juzʼ''. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.<ref>Suraiya Faroqhi, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95&dq=printing+Qu%27ran&ei=v5jbS8qMBo-GzgSw8eGcCQ&cd=7#v=onepage&q=printing%20Qu%27ran&f=false ''Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire''], pp, 134–136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA803&dq=Islam+block+printing&as_brr=3&ei=QTncS9WLKp2WyAS2yPnGCQ&cd=7#v=onepage&q&f=false The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid], Clifford Edmund Bosworth</ref> |
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> |
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File:Folio_from_a_Koran_(8th-9th_century).jpg|''kufic'' script, Eighth or ninth century. |
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File:Qur%27anic_Manuscript_-_Maghribi_script.jpg|''maghribi'' script, 13th-14th centuries. |
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File:Muhaqqaq_script.gif|''muhaqaq script, 14th-15th centuries |
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File:Shikastah script.jpg|''shikasta nastaliq'' script, 18th-19th centuries |
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</gallery> |
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=== Printing === |
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Short extracts from the Quran were printed as early as the 10th century in various parts of the Muslim world with a method known as [[Woodcut|wood-block printing]]. In this technique a page is carved in a wooden block, one block per page. A similar technique was widely used in China.<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=940 Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg]</ref> Arabic, where the script is joined up, is less easily adapted to [[Movable type|movable-type]] printing (i.e., modern pre-digital printing) than European scripts. In the Islamic world, the printing of Arabic encountered strong opposition from [[Ulama|Muslim legal scholars]] and the [[manuscript]] scribes (who risked losing work). Printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the [[Ottoman empire]] between 1483 and 1729—initially, even on penalty of death.<ref>Suraiya Faroqhi, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95&dq=printing+Qu%27ran&ei=v5jbS8qMBo-GzgSw8eGcCQ&cd=7#v=onepage&q=printing%20Qu%27ran&f=false ''Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire''], pp, 134-136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-760-2, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA803&dq=Islam+block+printing&as_brr=3&ei=QTncS9WLKp2WyAS2yPnGCQ&cd=7#v=onepage&q&f=false The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111-112 : Masrah Mawlid], Clifford Edmund Bosworth</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Watson|1968|p=435}}; {{harvnb|Clogg|1979|p=67}}</ref> The first movable Arabic type printing was ordered by [[Pope Julius II]] (1503−1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Krek|1979|p=203}}</ref> |
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The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in [[Venice]] in 1537/1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini.<ref>[http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=405 First Printed Edition of the Qur'an]</ref><ref>[http://www.bible-quran.com/complete-arabic-quran-movable-type/ The First Printed Complete Arabic Quran]</ref><ref>[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.venice.htm East Meets West In Venice: The First-Ever Printed Arabic Edition Of Quran]</ref> Two more editions include those published by the pastor [[Abraham Hinckelmann]] in Hamburg in 1694 and by Italian priest [[Louis Maracci|Ludovico Maracci]] in [[Padua]] in 1698. The latter edition included an accurate Latin translation. In 1787 in Saint Petersburg, [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia, sponsored a printing of the Quran by a Muslim scholar named Mullah Osman Ismail. This was followed by editions from [[Kazan]] (1803), Tehran (1828) and finally Istanbul (1877). [[Gustav Leberecht Flügel|Gustav Flügel]] published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which became popular in Europe. This edition provided a large number of readers with access to a reliable text and was referred to for a long time thereafter, until the publication of an edition of the Quran in Cairo in 1924 which was the result of a long preparation process by scholars from [[al-Azhar]] university. This edition which standardized the [[orthography]] of the Quran is the basis of current editions of the Quran.<ref name=rippin /><ref>{{cite web|last=The Qur'an in Manuscript and Print|url=http://www.islamworld.net/UUQ/3.txt|title=The Qur'anic Script |accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref> |
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==Relationship with other literature== |
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{{Scriptures}} |
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===The Bible=== |
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{{See also|Biblical narratives and the Quran|Tawrat}} |
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{{Rquote|right|It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).<ref>3:3 نزل عليك الكتاب بالحق مصدقا لما بين يديه وانزل التوراة والانجيل</ref>|{{Cite quran|3|3|s=ns|tn=y}}}} |
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The Quran speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the [[Torah]] and the [[Gospel]]) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.<ref>{{Cite quran|2|285|style=nosup}}</ref> |
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According to [[Sahih al-Bukhari]], the Quran was recited among [[Levant]]ines and [[Iraq]]is, and discussed by Christians and Jews, before it was standardized.<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/bukhari/061.sbt.html#006.061.510 USC.edu] {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> Its language was [[The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran|similar]] to the [[Syriac language]]. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] sacred books ([[Tanakh]], [[Bible]]) and devotional literature ([[Apocrypha]], [[Midrash]]), although it differs in many details. [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Hud (prophet)|Eber]], [[Shelah (son of Judah)|Shelah]], [[Abraham]], [[Lot (Bible)|Lot]], [[Ishmael]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]], [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]], [[Jethro]], [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Elijah]], [[Elisha]], [[Jonah]], [[Aaron]], [[Moses]], [[Zechariah (priest)|Zechariah]], [[John the Baptist]] and [[Jesus]] are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see [[Prophets of Islam]]). In fact, [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.<ref name=Keeler>Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), [http://books.google.com/books?id=9A4JZ8CSJJwC&pg=PA55&vq=Moses&dq=Moses+Qur%27an&source=gbs_search_s&cad=4&sig=ACfU3U1sEssZMSZaPhSSlzCosLopQbDrOQ#PPA55,M1 ''Abraham's children: Jews, Christians and Muslims in conversation''], by. T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55 - 66.</ref> Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad, while [[Mary in Islam|Mary]] is mentioned in the Quran more than the New Testament.<ref>Esposito, John L. ''The Future of Islam''. Oxford University Press US, 2010. ISBN 978-0-19-516521-0 [http://books.google.com/books?id=-UxRoBmUnsYC&pg=PA40&dq=%22Christians+are+often+surprised+to+discover+that%22&hl=en&ei=jsDETYv6AY-asAOt57HrAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Christians%20are%20often%20surprised%20to%20discover%20that%22&f=false p. 40]</ref> Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to their common divine source, and that the original Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets. |
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===Relationships=== |
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There are also some non-Muslim groups who view the Quran as holy, such as [[Baha'i]]s and [[Druze]]. Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. The Quran has been noted to have certain narratives similarities to the [[Diatessaron]], [[Protoevangelium of James]], [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]] and the [[Arabic Infancy Gospel]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=DbtkpgGn4CEC&lpg=PA112&dq=apocrypha%20qur'an%20Diatessaron&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q=apocrypha%20qur'an%20Diatessaron&f=false Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an by Signey Griffith], p.112, in ''The Qurʼān in its historical context'', Gabriel Said Reynolds, ed. Psychology Press, 2008</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=sjJaBjxg7EUC&lpg=PA197&dq=apocrypha%20qur'an&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q=apocrypha%20qur'an&f=false Qur'an-Bible Comparison: A Topical Study of the Two Most Influential and Respectful Books in Western and Middle Eastern Civilizations by Ami Ben-Chanan], p. 197–198, Trafford Publishing, 2011</ref><ref>New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1967, the Catholic University of America, Washington DC, Vol. VII, p.677</ref> One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a [[gospel harmony]], may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.<ref>"On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran" by Ibn Rawandi, found in ''What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text and Commentary'', Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, ed. ISBN 978-1-57392-945-5</ref> |
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===Arab writing=== |
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[[File:Large Koran.jpg|thumb|right|upright|150px|Page from a Quran ('Umar-i Aqta'). [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Timurid dynasty]], circa 1400. Opaque [[watercolor]], ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq script. 170 × 109 cm (66 {{frac|15|16}} × 42 {{frac|15|16}} in). Historical region: [[Uzbekistan]].]] |
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After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the [[Arabic alphabet]] developed rapidly into an art form.<ref name =leaman /> |
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Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at [[University of Chicago]] and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at [[Youngstown State University]] state that:<ref>Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, ''Literature and the Quran'', Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 3, pp. 213, 216</ref> |
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{{bquote|Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Quran was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature. |
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The main areas in which the Quran exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Quran particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that Quranic words, idioms and expressions, especially "loaded" and formulaic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Quran create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{div col}} |
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* [[Pigasus Award]] |
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* [[Criticism of the Quran]] |
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* [[Robert Todd Carroll]]'s ''[[Skeptic's Dictionary]]'' |
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* [[Dhikr]] |
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* [[Digital Quran]] |
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* [[Female figures in the Quran|Women in the Quran]] |
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* [[List of people related to Quranic verses]] |
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* [[Quranism]] |
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* [[Quran and miracles]] |
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* [[Quran and Sunnah]] |
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* [[Quran reading]] |
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* [[Bi-la kaifa|Quranic literalism]] |
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* [[Tafsir|Tafsir of the Quran]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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{{Portal bar|Quran|Islam}} |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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* {{note|1|[n 1]}} The English pronunciation varies: {{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|r|æ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ɔr|ˈ|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ɔr|ˈ|æ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|oʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|oʊ|ˈ|r|æ|n}};<ref>dictionary.reference.com: [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Koran koran]</ref> especially with the spelling ''quran'' {{IPAc-en|k|ʊr|ˈ|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ʊr|ˈ|æ|n}};<ref>dictionary.reference.com: [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Quran quran]</ref> especially in British English {{IPAc-en|k|ɒr|ˈ|ɑː|n}}.<ref>Cambridge dictionary: [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/the-koran koran]</ref><ref>Cambridge dictionary: [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/the-qur-an?q=qur%27an quran]</ref> |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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* {{note|2|[n 2]}} The actual pronunciation in [[Literary Arabic]] varies regionally. The first vowel varies from {{IPAblink|o}} to {{IPAblink|ʊ}} to {{IPAblink|u}}, while the second vowel varies from {{IPAblink|æ}} to {{IPAblink|a}} to {{IPAblink|ɑ}}. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is {{IPA|[qorˤˈʔɑːn]}} and in Central East Arabia {{IPA|[qʊrˈʔæːn]}}. |
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==References== |
== References == |
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{{ |
{{reflist|2}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Alcock |first=James |authorlink=James Alcock |editor-last=Kurtz |editor-first=Paul |editor-link=Paul Kurtz |year=2001 |title=Skeptical Odysseys: Personal Accounts by the World's Leading Paranormal Inquirers |chapter=Science vs. Pseudoscience, Nonscience, and Nonsense |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, NY |isbn=1-57392-884-4 |oclc=45821233 |ref=Alcock}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* {{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |authorlink=Isaac Asimov |title=I. Asimov: A Memoir |edition=1st |year=1994 |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |location=New York |isbn=0-553-56997-X |oclc=32012202 |lccn=93008644 |chapter=Trap Door Spiders |ref=Asimov}} |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Burt |first=Daniel S. |title=The Biography Book: A Reader's Guide to Nonfiction, Fictional, and Film Biographies of More Than 500 of the Most Fascinating Individuals of All Time |year=2001 |publisher=Oryx Press |location=Westport, CT |isbn=1-57356-256-4 |oclc=44502070 |ref=Burt}} |
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'''Introductory texts:''' |
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* {{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |authorlink=Robert Todd Carroll |title=The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions |year=2003 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=Hoboken, NJ |isbn=0-471-27242-6 |oclc=52086432 |ref=Carroll}} |
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* |
*{{cite book|last=Hixon|first=Lex|title=The heart of the Qurʼan : an introduction to Islamic spirituality|year=2003|publisher=Quest|isbn=0835608220|edition=2. ed.}} |
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* |
*{{cite book|last=Hawting|first=G.R.|title=Approaches to the Qur'ān|year=1993|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-05755-4|edition=1. publ.}} |
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* |
*{{cite book|last=Rippin|first=Andrew|title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an|year=2006|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-1752-4}} |
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* {{Cite book | last = Tabatabae | first = Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | authorlink = | title = The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims | publisher = Routledge| year = 1988| isbn =978-0-7103-0266-3}} |
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* {{cite book |editor-last=Moritz |editor-first=Charles |title=Current Biography Yearbook, 1987 |volume=48 |year=1987 |publisher=[[H. W. Wilson Company]] |location=New York |oclc=17332312 |ref=Moritz}} |
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* Neal Robinson, ''Discovering the Qur'an'', Georgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58901-024-6 |
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* {{cite book |last1=Moseley |first1=James W. |authorlink1=James W. Moseley |last2=Pflock |first2=Karl T. |authorlink2=Karl T. Pflock |title=Shockingly Close to the Truth! Confessions of a Grave-Robbing Ufologist |year=2002 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=New York |isbn=1-57392-991-3 |oclc=48942361 |ref=Moseley & Pflock}} |
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* [[Michael Sells|Sells, Michael]], ''Approaching the Qur'ān: The Early Revelations,'' White Cloud Press, Book & CD edition (November 15, 1999). ISBN 978-1-883991-26-5 |
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* {{cite book |last=Polidoro |first=Massimo |authorlink=Massimo Polidoro |title=Secrets of the Psychics: Investigating Paranormal Claims |year=2003 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, NY |isbn=1-59102-086-7 |oclc=52312569 |ref=Polidoro}} |
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* {{Cite book | last = Wild | first = Stefan | authorlink = | title = The Quʼran as Text | publisher = Brill| year = 1996| isbn =978-90-04-09300-3}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Randi |first=James |editor1-first=Yervant |editor1-last=Terzian |editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor2-last=Bilson |title=Carl Sagan's Universe |year=1997 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge; New York |isbn=0-521-57286-X |oclc=36130681 |lccn=96040511 |chapter=Science and Pseudoscience |ref=Randi 1997}} |
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* {{Cite book| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| isbn = 978-0-7486-0597-2| last = Bell| first = Richard| coauthors = William Montgomery Watt| title = Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān| year = 1970| authorlink=Richard Bell (Arabist)}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Rodrigues |first=Luís F. |title=Open Questions: Diverse Thinkers Discuss God, Religion, and Faith |year=2010 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-0-313-38644-2 |oclc=548555665 |lccn=2010011195 |ref=Rodrigues}} |
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* {{Cite book| edition = Second| publisher = University Of Chicago Press| isbn = 978-0-226-70286-5| last = Rahman| first = Fazlur| title = Major Themes of the Qur'an| year = 2009| authorlink= Fazlur Rahman| origyear=1989}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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* {{Cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=[[The Quest of the Historical Muhammad (Peters)|The Quest of the Historical Muhammad]] | journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |year=1991}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis E. | authorlink= | title=The Monotheists: Jews, Christians and Muslims in Conflict and Competition | publisher=Princeton University Press | edition= | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-691-12373-8}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia|last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein | authorlink= | title=Qurʾān|year=2007| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | location=|publisher=|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein | authorlink= | title=Islam: Religion, History and Civilization | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | edition= | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-06-050714-5}} |
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* {{Cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | isbn=978-0-253-34711-4}} |
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* {{Cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-513526-8}} |
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* {{Cite book|last = Corbin|first = Henry|authorlink = Henry Corbin|coauthors = |title = History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, [[Philip Sherrard]]|publisher = London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies |year = 1993 (original French 1964)|isbn = 978-0-7103-0416-2}} |
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* {{Cite book| ref = harv| edition = Second| publisher = University Of Chicago Press| isbn = 978-0-226-70286-5| last = Rahman| first = Fazlur| title = Major Themes of the Qur'an| year = 2009| authorlink= Fazlur Rahman| origyear=1989}} |
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* {{Cite book | last=Allen | first=Roger | title=An Introduction to Arabic literature | year=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-77657-8}} |
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'''Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir):''' |
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{{main|List of ''tafsir''}} |
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* [[Al-Tabari]], ''Jāmiʻ al-bayān ʻan taʼwīl al-qurʼān'', Cairo 1955–69, transl. J. Cooper (ed.), ''The Commentary on the Qurʼān'', Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-19-920142-6 |
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* {{Cite book | last = Tabatabae | first = Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | authorlink = Allameh Tabatabaei | title = [[Tafsir al-Mizan]]| publisher = | year = }} |
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'''Topical studies:''' |
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* Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. ''Women in the Qur'an, Traditions and Interpretation'', Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (June 1, 1996), ISBN 978-0-19-511148-4 |
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* Gibson, Dan (2011). ''Qur’anic Geography: A Survey and Evaluation of the Geographical References in the Qur’an with Suggested Solutions for Various Problems and Issues''. Independent Scholars Press, Canada. ISBN 978-0-9733642-8-6. |
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* {{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-36470-6| last = McAuliffe| first = Jane Dammen| title = Qurʼānic Christians : an analysis of classical and modern exegesis| location = New York| year = 1991| authorlink=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}} |
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* Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. ''A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide [especially in comparative Qur'anic and Biblical exegesis].'' First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-978-0-06-143828-8 |
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'''Literary criticism:''' |
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* {{Cite book| edition = First| publisher = UK Islamic Academy| isbn = 1-872531-65-2| author = M. M. Al-Azami | title = The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments| year = 2003| authorlink=M. M. Al-Azami}} |
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* [[Gunter Luling]] (2003). ''A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations''. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (580 Seiten, lieferbar per Seepost). ISBN 978-81-208-1952-8. |
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* [[Christoph Luxenberg|Luxenberg, Christoph]] (2004). ''[[The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran|The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran]]'', Berlin, Verlag Hans Schiler, 1 May 2007. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8. |
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* [[Gerd R. Puin|Puin, Gerd R.]]. "Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in Sana'a", in ''The Qurʾan as Text'', ed. Stefan Wild, E. J. Brill 1996, pp. 107–111. |
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* [[John Wansbrough|Wansbrough, John]]. ''Quranic Studies'', Oxford University Press, 1977 |
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'''Encyclopedias:''' |
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* {{Cite book| edition = First| publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| isbn = 978-90-04-11465-4| others = Jane Dammen McAuliffe et al. (eds.)| title = [[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an]] | date = 2001–2006}} |
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* {{Cite book| edition = First| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-0-415-77529-8| others = Oliver Leaman et al. (eds.) | title = The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia| year = 2005}} |
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* {{Cite book| edition = First| publisher = Center for Islamic Sciences| isbn = 978-1-926620-00-8| others = Muzaffar Iqbal et al. (eds.)| title = The Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur’an| date = January 2013|url=http://www.iequran.com}} |
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'''Academic journals:''' |
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* {{Cite journal| issn = 1465-3591| publisher= [[School of Oriental and African Studies]] | title = [[Journal of Qur'anic Studies]] / Majallat al-dirāsāt al-Qurʹānīyah| date = 1999–present}} |
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* {{cite journal | date=2006–present |title=Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies |location=Medina, Saudi Arabia| publisher=King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex| url=http://jqrs.qurancomplex.gov.sa/en/}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{Sister project links}} |
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{{commons}} |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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'''Quran browsers and translations:''' |
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* [http://tanzil.net/ Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator] |
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* [http://quran.com Quran.com] |
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* [http://al-quran.info Al-Quran.info] |
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* [http://www.yabiladi.com/coran/ Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)] |
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''' |
'''Word-for-word analysis:''' |
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* [http://corpus.quran.com Quranic Arabic Corpus], shows syntax and morphology for each word. |
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* {{official website|http://www.randi.org|James Randi Educational Foundation}} |
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* [http://www.emuslim.com/Quran/Translation_English.asp Word for Word English Translation – emuslim.com] |
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* {{youtube user|JamesRandiFoundation|James Randi Educational Foundation official YouTube channel}} |
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* {{URL|http://www.randi.org/radio/index.html|Randi's Internet Audio Show}} from the [[James Randi Educational Foundation]] |
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''' |
'''Manuscripts:''' |
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* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/islamic Several digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library] |
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* [http://skepdic.com/randi.html James Randi in] the [[Skeptic's Dictionary]] |
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* {{IMDb name|709791|James Randi}} |
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* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n80-62980}} |
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''' |
'''Other resources:''' |
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* {{Dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Quran/}} |
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* [http://www.linkingpage.com/magicnewsfeed/2009/5/12/mnw-110-james-randi.html James Randi interview] (May 2009) from the podcast of MagicNewswire.com in which Randi discusses his career in magic, his feud with Uri Geller and more. |
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* [http://bsalert.com/news/2145/BSAlert_Show_5_-_James_Randi_on_Paranormalism_and_Phenomenon.html James Randi interview] (November 2007) from the BSAlert.com radio show where Randi discusses NBC's ''[[Phenomenon (TV series)|Phenomenon]]'' TV show, the current status of Uri Geller and his thoughts about whether society is becoming more or less superstitious. |
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* {{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathyrandi.shtml|title=Homeopathy: The Test – webchat with James Randi|publisher=BBC|date=November 26, 2002|first=|last=|accessdate=}} |
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* [http://www.skeptictank.org/hs/paranorm.htm "20 Major Aspects of Liars, Cheats, and Frauds" by James Randi"] |
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{{Sura|||—}} |
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{{Famous Magicians}} |
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{{Characters and names in the Quran}} |
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{{Parapsychology}} |
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{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}} |
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[[Category:Quran| ]] |
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[[Category:7th-century books]] |
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[[Category:Constitutions]] |
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[[Category:Islamic theology]] |
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[[Category:Islam]] |
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[[Category:Islamic texts]] |
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[[Category:Medieval literature]] |
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[[Category:Religious texts]] |
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{{Link FA|ar}} |
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{{Persondata |
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{{Link GA|fi}} |
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|NAME=Randi, James |
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{{Link GA|zh}} |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Zwinge, Randall James Hamilton (birth name); The Amazing Randi (stage name) |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Magician, skeptic, writer |
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|DATE OF BIRTH=August 7, 1928 |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], Canada |
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}} |
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[[Category:Fellows of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] |
Revision as of 04:35, 10 January 2014
Quran |
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The Quran (English: /kɔːrˈɑːn/[n 1] kor-AHN , Arabic: القرآن al-qurʼān, IPA: [qurˈʔaːn],[n 2] literally meaning "the recitation", also romanised Qurʼan or Koran) is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God (Arabic: الله, Allah).[1] It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language.[2][3][4][5] Muslims consider the Quran to be the only book that has been protected by God from distortion or corruption.[6] However, some significant textual variations (employing different wordings) and deficiencies in the Arabic script mean the relationship between the text of today's Quran and an original text is unclear.[7] Quranic chapters are called suras and verses are called ayahs.
Muslims believe that the Quran was verbally revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel (Jibril), gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609 CE,[8] when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632 CE, the year of his death.[1][9][10] Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was collected by his companions using written Quranic materials and everything that had been memorized of the Quran.[11]
Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, the proof of his prophethood[12] and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and ended with Muhammad. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Jewish and Christian scriptures. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events.[13][14][15] The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance. It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence.[16][17] The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law.[18] During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic.[19]
Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. Some Muslims read Quranic ayahs (verses) with elocution, which is often called tajwīd. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers.
Etymology and meaning
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/IslamicGalleryBritishMuseum3.jpg/220px-IslamicGalleryBritishMuseum3.jpg)
The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qaraʼa (قرأ), meaning 'he read' or 'he recited.' The Syriac equivalent is (ܩܪܝܢܐ) qeryānā, which refers to “scripture reading” or “lesson.”[20] While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qaraʼa itself.[1] Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.[1] An important meaning of the word is the “act of reciting,” as reflected in an early Quranic passage: “It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qurʼānahu).”[21]
In other verses, the word refers to “an individual passage recited [by Muhammad].” Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it and keep silent."[22] The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.[23]
The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include [[[kitab|kitāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: unrecognized transliteration standard: (help) (book); [[[ayah|āyah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: unrecognized transliteration standard: (help) (sign); and [[[Sura|sūrah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: unrecognized transliteration standard: (help) (scripture). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the “revelation” (waḥy), that which has been “sent down” (tanzīl) at intervals.[24][25] Other related words are: dhikr (remembrance), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning, and [ḥikmah] Error: {{Transliteration}}: unrecognized transliteration standard: (help) (wisdom), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.[1][26]
The Quran describes itself as "the discernment or the criterion between truth and falsehood" (al-furqān), "the mother book" (umm al-kitāb), "the guide" (huda), "the wisdom" (hikmah), "the remembrance" (dhikr) and "the revelation" (tanzīl; something sent down, signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place).[27] Another term is al-kitāb (the book), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The adjective of Quran has multiple transliterations including quranic, koranic and qur'anic, or capitalised as Qur'anic, Koranic and Quranic. The term muṣḥaf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.[1] Other transliterations of Quran include "al-Coran", "Coran", "Kuran" and "al-Qurʼan".
History
Prophetic era
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Cave_Hira.jpg/150px-Cave_Hira.jpg)
Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad emigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraish who were taken prisoners at the battle of Badr, regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Qurʼan as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 CE.[28][29][30] There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.[31]
Orthodox Muslims believe that the Quran is the unchanging Word of God. However, some non-Islamic scholars believe differently. For example, "Dr. Gerd R Puin, a renowned Islamicist at Saarland University, Germany, says it is not one single work that has survived unchanged through the centuries. It may include stories that were written before the prophet Mohammed began his ministry and which have subsequently been rewritten."[32] Based on his analysis of Sana'a manuscript, Puin claims that the Quran contains stories that were written before prophet Mohammed began his ministry and which have subsequently been rewritten. His findings were controversial—and offensive enough to Muslims that the authorities who hold the manuscript denied Puin further access to them. Allen Jones, lecturer in Koranic Studies at Oxford University, says that "trifling changes were made to the text" and notes that diacritical marks and 1,000 alifs (the first letter of the Arabic alphabet) were inserted into the Quran around 700 AD by Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, governor of Iraq, in order to obtain more understandable version which Jones notes, "became pretty stable".[32]
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Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."[33] Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power", the one who "appeared on the uppermost horizon and then came nearer and nearer, until he was as close to him as the distance of two bows, or even less."(53:7-8).[29][34] The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.[35]
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In the Quranic verse 7:157,[36] Muhammad is described as "ummi" which is traditionally interpreted as illiterate but the meaning is rather more complex. The medieval commentators such as Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: firstly, the inability to read or write in general and secondly, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures however they gave priority to the first meaning. Besides Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning.[29][37]
Compilation
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Based on earlier transmitted reports, in the year 632 CE, after Muhammad died and a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in a battle by Musaylimah, the first caliph Abu Bakr (d. 634CE) decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655CE) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. After Abu Bakr, Hafsa bint Umar, Muhammad's widow, was entrusted with the manuscript. In about 650 CE, when the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656CE) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran, and as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into Persia, the Levant and North Africa, in order to preserve the sanctity of the text, ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard copy of the Quran.[28][38] Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad’s death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.[28][39][40][41] The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.[29][30][42]
According to Shia and some Sunni scholars, Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661CE) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud's and Ubayy ibn Kab's codex, none of which exist today.[1][28][43]
Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development.[11] The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance.[citation needed] Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.[44] Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.[45][46]
In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (scriptio inferior) is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic" Quranic content, while the text written on top (scriptio superior) is believed to belong to Uthmanic time.[47] Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 AD with a 99 percent probability.[48][49]
Significance in Islam
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Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God's final revelation to humanity.[9][50] They also believe that the Quran has solutions to all the problems of humanity irrespective of how complex they may be and in what age they occur.
Revelation in Islamic and Quranic concept means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil (to send down) or nuzūl (to come down). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down."[51]
The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them.[52] The Quran refers to a written pre-text, "the preserved tablet", that records God's speech even before it was sent down.[53][54]
The issue of whether the Quran is eternal or created became a theological debate (Quran's createdness) in the ninth century. Mu'tazilas, an Islamic school of theology based on reason and rational thought, held that the Quran was created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians considered the Quran to be co-eternal with God and therefore uncreated. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.[55]
Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad and according to their interpretation of verse 15:9 it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Qur'an and indeed, We will be its guardian.").[56] Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. They argue it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Quran, as the Quran itself maintains.
Muslims commemorate annually the beginning of Quran's revelation on the Night of Destiny (Laylat al-Qadr), during the last 10 days of Ramadan, the month during which they fast from sunrise until sunset.[53]
The first chapter of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and in other occasions. This chapter, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited chapter of the Quran:[1]
- "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Universe, the Beneficent, the Merciful and Master of the Day of Judgment, You alone We do worship and from You alone we do seek assistance, guide us to the right path, the path of those to whom You have granted blessings, those who are neither subject to Your anger nor have gone astray."(Quran 1:1-7)
Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of the Quran verse 56:79: "none shall touch but those who are clean", some Muslism believe that a they must perform a ritual cleansing with water before touching a copy of the Quran although this view is not universal.[1] Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.[57]
In Islam, most intellectual disciplines including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and Jurisprudence have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings.[1]
In Islamic Art
The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination.[1] The Qurʼan is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurʼans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.
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Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India
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Typical glass and enamel mosque lamp with the Ayat an-Nur or "Verse of Light" (24:35)
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Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzebekistan
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Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period
Inimitability
Inimitability of the Quran (or "I'jaz") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection—and, thereby, the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses challenges opponents to produce something like the Quran: "If men and sprites banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another" (17:88). So the suggestion is that if there are doubts concerning the divine authorship of the Quran come forward and create something like it. From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including al-Jurjani (d. 1078CE) and al-Baqillani (d. 1013CE) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations in individual level and in the history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.[43][58]
Text and arrangement
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The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a chapter classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Chapter titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the surah. Chapters are arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. The chapter arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each chapter except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.[59]
Each chapter consists of several verses, known as ayat, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from chapter to chapter. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the Quran is 6236, however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately.
In addition to and independent of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 juz' (plural ajzāʼ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names—which are the first few words by which the juzʼ starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week.[1]
Muqatta'at, or the Quranic initials, are 14 different letter combinations of 14 Arabic letters that appear in the beginning of 29 chapters of the Quran. The meanings of these initials remain unclear.
According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.[60]
Contents
The Quranic content is concerned with the basic beliefs of Islam which include the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of the prophet’s time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and the historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message.[61]
Monotheism: The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (2:20,29,255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (13:16, 50:38, etc.) All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.[29][61]
The Quran uses cosmological and contigency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe, is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?" (67:3) [43]
Eschatology: The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be reckoned as the second great doctrine of the Quran.[29] It is estimated that around a full one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time.[39] There is a reference of the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and the belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "Believe in God and the last day".[62] A number of chapters such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some of the chapters indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Chapter 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing."[43]
The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:[29]
- "The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described. [...] The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life."
The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.[63]
Prophets: According to Qur'an God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. Prophets, or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty."(41:43). The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets, angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in 42:51, in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will."[39][63]
Ethico-Religious concepts: Belief is the center of the sphere of positive moral properties in the Quran. A number of scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of the words meaning 'belief' and 'believer' in the Quran [64] The Ethico-legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability and the belief in each human's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who "spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public" are promised that they "shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve" (2:274). It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce and inheritance. A number of practices such as usury and gambling are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of the Islamic law, or sharia. Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration.[11][63] The term used for charity, Zakat, actually means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification.[53][65]
Literary style
The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the chapters and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.[66]
The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose, however, this description runs the risk of compromising the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is certainly more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan chapters, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Chapter 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.[39][67]
The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.[1] The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to have lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and presence of repetition.[68][69] Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression – its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase – is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated.[70][71] Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild the Quran demonstrates this meta-textuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages when the Quran refers to itself as revelation (tanzil), remembrance (dhikr), news (naba'), criterion (furqan) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?" (21:50), or in the frequent appearance of the 'Say' tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g. "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance' ", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?' "). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan chapters.[72]
Interpretation
The Quran has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (tafsīr), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance".[73]
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.[74] Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like ʻAli ibn Abi Talib, ʻAbdullah ibn Abbas, ʻAbdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kaʻb. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.[75]
Because the Quran is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansūkh).[76][77] Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran.[78] The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has published a 10-volume Urdu commentary on the Quran, with the name Tafseer e Kabir.[79]
Esoteric Interpretation
Esoteric or Sufi interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent (zahir) point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence.[80] According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are 'allusions' (isharat) rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.[81]
Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran. Verse 7:143 of the Quran states:
- "when Moses came at the time we appointed, and his Lord spoke to him, he said, 'My Lord, show yourself to me! Let me see you! He said, 'you shall not see me but look at that mountain, if it remains standing firm you will see me.' When his Lord revealed Himself to the mountain, He made it crumble. Moses fell down unconscious. When he recovered, he said, 'Glory be to you! I repent to you! I am the first to believe!'" (Quran 7:143)
Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.[82]
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.[83][84]
According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like the Prophet and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God"(3:7 ) remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.[84]
According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.[84][85]
History of Sufi commentaries
One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021 CE) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named haqaiq al-tafsir ("Truths of Exegesis") which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) kash al-asrar ("the unveiling of the secrets").[80] Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in Mathnawi, which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently.[86] Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam.[87] Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appears in 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ruh al-Bayan (the Spirit of Elucidation) is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali), all woven together in Hafiz, a Persian poetry form.[87]
Levels of meaning
Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.[88] For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:
"The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."[88]
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.[89] Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.[90]
Commentaries dealing with the zahir (outward aspects) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil (“interpretation” or “explanation”), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God.[1] In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.
Translations
Translation of the Quran has always been a problematic and difficult issue. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.[91] Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.[43]
Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian and European languages.[43] The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century.[92] Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 CE in Alwar (Sindh, India now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.[93]
The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian language. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961-976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. In 12th century, Abu Hafas Najmuddin Umar al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times.
Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran.[43] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.[43] In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.[94]
Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin).[95] Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has published translations of the Quran in 50 different languages[96] besides a five-volume English commentary and a simple English translation of the Quran.[97]
As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "you".[98]
-
Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era.
-
The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647.
-
Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran.
-
Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran.
Recitation
Rules of recitation
The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named Tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.[43]
In order to avoid incorrect articulation reciters who are not native speakers of Arabic language try to follow a training in countries such as Egypt or Saudi Arabia. The recitations of a few of Egyptian reciters were highly influential in the art of recitation. The region of Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah from Jakarta.[43]
There are two types of recitation: murattal is at a slower pace, used for study and practice. Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners.[99]
Variant readings
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Qur%27an_folio_11th_century_kufic.jpg/250px-Qur%27an_folio_11th_century_kufic.jpg)
Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds were introduced into the Arabic language by the end of the ninth century. The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, therefore several recitations remain acceptable. The variation in readings of the text permitted by the nature of the defective vocalization led to an increase in the number of readings during the 10th century. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven eighth-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or 10, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven "aḥruf" (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d.796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, ʻĀṣim (Kufa, d. 745) and Nāfi (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo (1924) uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the eighth-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.[39][100]
The variant readings of the Quran do not relate to any textual variation, instead, all of the readings pertain to differences in the vocalization of the same text.[39] According to Melchert, the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.[101]
Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes. Some of Nasser's categories are internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (shaddah), assimilation and alternation.[102]
Occasionally, an early Qur'an shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the eighth century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir of Damascus.[103] Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.[104]
Writing and printing
Writing
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī-type script. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore chose simpler writing styles. From the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī and, on rarer occasions, the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Spain, the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.[39][105]
In the beginning, the Quran did not have vocalization markings. The system of vocalization, as we know it today, seems to have been introduced towards the end of the ninth century. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.[106]
-
kufic script, Eighth or ninth century.
-
maghribi script, 13th-14th centuries.
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muhaqaq script, 14th-15th centuries
-
shikasta nastaliq script, 18th-19th centuries
Printing
Short extracts from the Quran were printed as early as the 10th century in various parts of the Muslim world with a method known as wood-block printing. In this technique a page is carved in a wooden block, one block per page. A similar technique was widely used in China.[107] Arabic, where the script is joined up, is less easily adapted to movable-type printing (i.e., modern pre-digital printing) than European scripts. In the Islamic world, the printing of Arabic encountered strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars and the manuscript scribes (who risked losing work). Printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1729—initially, even on penalty of death.[108][109] The first movable Arabic type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (1503−1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians.[110]
The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537/1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini.[111][112][113] Two more editions include those published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694 and by Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698. The latter edition included an accurate Latin translation. In 1787 in Saint Petersburg, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing of the Quran by a Muslim scholar named Mullah Osman Ismail. This was followed by editions from Kazan (1803), Tehran (1828) and finally Istanbul (1877). Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which became popular in Europe. This edition provided a large number of readers with access to a reliable text and was referred to for a long time thereafter, until the publication of an edition of the Quran in Cairo in 1924 which was the result of a long preparation process by scholars from al-Azhar university. This edition which standardized the orthography of the Quran is the basis of current editions of the Quran.[39][114]
Relationship with other literature
The Bible
It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).[115]
The Quran speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the Torah and the Gospel) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.[116]
According to Sahih al-Bukhari, the Quran was recited among Levantines and Iraqis, and discussed by Christians and Jews, before it was standardized.[117] Its language was similar to the Syriac language. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.[118] Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad, while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than the New Testament.[119] Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to their common divine source, and that the original Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets.
Relationships
There are also some non-Muslim groups who view the Quran as holy, such as Baha'is and Druze. Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. The Quran has been noted to have certain narratives similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel.[120][121][122] One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.[123]
Arab writing
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Large_Koran.jpg/150px-Large_Koran.jpg)
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form.[43]
Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University state that:[124]
Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Quran was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature. The main areas in which the Quran exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Quran particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that Quranic words, idioms and expressions, especially "loaded" and formulaic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Quran create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...
See also
Notes
- ^[n 1] The English pronunciation varies: /kəˈrɑːn/, /kəˈræn/, /kɔːrˈɑːn/, /kɔːrˈæn/, /koʊˈrɑːn/, /koʊˈræn/;[125] especially with the spelling quran /kʊrˈɑːn/, /kʊrˈæn/;[126] especially in British English /kɒrˈɑːn/.[127][128]
- ^[n 2] The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The first vowel varies from [o] to [ʊ] to [u], while the second vowel varies from [æ] to [a] to [ɑ]. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is [qorˤˈʔɑːn] and in Central East Arabia [qʊrˈʔæːn].
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʼān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
- ^ Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
- ^ Nelson, K. (1985) The Art of Reciting the Quran, University of Texas Press, Austin
- ^ Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.
- ^ Taji-Farouki, S. (ed.) (2004) Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Quran, Oxford University Press, Oxford
- ^ Understanding the Qurán - Page xii, Ahmad Hussein Sakr - 2000
- ^ Donner, Fred, "The historical context" in McAuliffe, J. D. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 31–33.
- ^
- Chronology of Prophetic Events, Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001) p. 50 Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
- Quran 17:105
- ^ a b Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
- ^ Quran 17:106
- ^ a b c Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts On File. pp. 570–74. ISBN 0-8160-5454-1.
- ^ Peters, F.E. (2003). The Words and Will of God. Princeton University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-691-11461-7.
- ^ Nigosian, S.A. (2004). Islam : its history, teaching and practices ([New ed.]. ed.). Indiana Univ. Press. pp. 65–80. ISBN 0-253-21627-3.
- ^ Wheeler, Brannon M. (2002). Prophets in the Quran: an introduction to the Quran and Muslim exegesis. Continuum. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8264-4956-6.
- ^ Quran 3:84
- ^ Nasr (2003), p. 42[full citation needed]
- ^ Quran 2:67–76
- ^ Handbook of Islamic Marketing, Page 38, G. Rice - 2011
- ^ Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives - Page 193, Brian V Street - 2001
- ^ "qryn". Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- ^ Quran 75:17
- ^ Quran 7:204
- ^ See “Ķur'an, al-,” Encyclopedia of Islam Online and [Quran 9:111]
- ^ Quran 20:2 cf.
- ^ Quran 25:32 cf.
- ^ According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that “Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him.”
- ^ Abbas Jaffer, Masuma Jaffer (2009). Quranic Sciences. ICAS press. pp. 11–15. ISBN 1-904063-30-6.
- ^ a b c d Tabatabai, Sayyid M. H. (1987). The Qur'an in Islam : its impact and influence on the life of muslims. Zahra Publ. ISBN 0710302665.
- ^ a b c d e f g Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt) (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qur'an. Univ. Press. pp. 31–51. ISBN 0852241712.
- ^ a b P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis (1970). The Cambridge history of Islam (Reprint. ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780521291354.
- ^ Denffer, Ahmad von (1985). Ulum al-Qur'an : an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an (Repr. ed.). Islamic Foundation. p. 37. ISBN 0860371328.
- ^ a b Taher, Abul (8 August 2000). "Querying the Koran". The Guardian.
- ^ Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. "God's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."
- ^ Quran 53:5-8
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam online, Muhammad article
- ^ "Quran verse 7:157".
- ^ Günther, Sebastian (2002). "Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis". Journal of Quranic Studies. 4 (1): 1–26.
- ^ al-Bukhari, Muhammad. "Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510". 810-870 CE. http://www.sahih-bukhari.com. Retrieved Aug 2013.
{{cite web}}
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- ^ a b c d e f g h Rippin, Andrew; et al. (2006). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an ([2a reimpr.] ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978140511752-4.
{{cite book}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|last=
(help)- see section Poetry and Language by Navid Kermani, p.107-120.
- For eschatology, see Discovering (final destination) by Christopher Buck, p.30.
- For writing and printing, see section Written Transmission by François Déroche, p.172-187.
- For literary structure, see section Language by Mustansir Mir, p.93.
- For the history of compilation see Introduction by Tamara Sonn p.5-6
- For recitation, see Recitation by Anna M. Gade p.481-493
- ^ Mohamad K. Yusuff, Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an
- ^ The Koran; A Very Short Introduction, Michael Cook. Oxford University Press, pp. 117–124
- ^ F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: “Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation.”
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32639-7.
- For God in the Quran (Allah), see Allah by Zeki Saritoprak, p. 33-40.
- For eschatology, see Eschatology by Zeki Saritoprak, p. 194-199.
- For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see Cyberspace and the Qur'an by Andrew Rippin, p.159-163.
- For calligraphy, see by Calligraphy and the Qur'an by Oliver Leaman, p 130-135.
- For translation, see Translation and the Qur'an by Afnan Fatani, p.657-669.
- For recitation, see Art and the Qur'an by Tamara Sonn, p.71-81 and Reading by Stefan Wild, p.532-535.
- ^ For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text" in McAuliffe, J. D. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 52.
- ^ Arthur Jeffery and St. Clair-Tisdal et al, Edited by Ibn Warraq, Summarised by Sharon Morad, Leeds. "The Origins of the Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book". Retrieved 2011-03-15.
{{cite web}}
:|last=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ *F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that the Quran is the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
- ^ "'The Qur'an: Text, Interpretation and Translation' Third Biannual SOAS Conference, October 16–17, 2003". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 6 (1): 143–145. 2004. doi:10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143.
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ignored (help) - ^ Bergmann, Uwe (2010). "The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Qurān of the Prophet". Arabica. 57 (4): 343–436. doi:10.1163/157005810X504518.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Sadeghi, Behnam (2012). "Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān". Der Islam. 87 (1–2): 1–129. doi:10.1515/islam-2011-0025.
{{cite journal}}
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Watton, Victor, (1993), A student's approach to world religions:Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 978-0-340-58795-9
- ^ See:
- Corbin (1993), p.12[full citation needed]
- Wild (1996), pp. 137, 138, 141 and 147[full citation needed]
- Quran 2:97
- Quran 17:105
- ^ Jenssen, H., "Arabic Language" in McAuliffe et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān, vol. 1 (Brill, 2001), pp. 127-135.
- ^ a b c Sonn, Tamara (2010). Islam : a brief history (Second ed. ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8093-1.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help) - ^ Quran 85:22
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.10
- ^ Mir Sajjad Ali, Zainab Rahman (2010). Islam and Indian Muslims. Kalpaz Publications. p. 21. ISBN 8178358050.
- ^ Afghan Quran-burning protests: What’s the right way to dispose of a Quran? - Slate Magazine
- ^ Vasalou, Sophia (2002). "The Miraculous Eloquence of the Qur'an: General Trajectories and Individual Approaches". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 4 (2): 23–53.
- ^ See:
- “Kur`an, al-,” Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- Allen (2000) p. 53
- ^ Dukes, Kais. "RE: Number of Unique Words in the Quran". www.mail-archive.com. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
- ^ a b Saeed, Abdullah (2008). The Qurʼan : an introduction. London: Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 9780415421249.
- ^ Haleem, Muhammad Abdel (2005). Understanding the Qur'an : themes and style. I.B. Tauris. p. 82. ISBN 9781860646508.
- ^ a b c Martin, Richard C. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 568-62 (By Farid Esack). ISBN 0028656032.
- ^ Izutsu, Toshihiko (2007). Ethico-religious concepts in the Qur'an (Repr. 2007 ed.). McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 184. ISBN 0773524274.
- ^ Quran 9:103
- ^ Issa Boullata, "Literary Structure of Quran", Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān, vol.3 p.192, 204
- ^ Jewishencyclopedia.com – Körner, Moses B. Eliezer
- ^ "The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order.... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read." Approaches to the Asian Classics, Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 65
- ^ Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!" http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21
- ^ Michael Sells, Approaching the Qur'ān (White Cloud Press, 1999)
- ^ Norman O. Brown, "The Apocalypse of Islam". Social Text 3:8 (1983–1984)
- ^ Wild, ed. by Stefan (2006). Self-referentiality in the Qur'an. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3447053836.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help) - ^ Preface of Al'-Mizan, reference is to Allameh Tabatabaei [dead link]
- ^ Quran 2:151
- ^ Tafseer Al-Mizan [dead link]
- ^ How can there be abrogation in the Quran?
- ^ Are the verses of the Qur'an Abrogated and/or Substituted?
- ^ Islahi, Amin Ahsan. "Abrogation in the Qur'ān". Renaissance Journal. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ^ Tafsir Kabeer by Mirza Bashiruddin Mahmood Ahmad
- ^ a b Godlas, Alan (2008). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an (Pbk. ed. ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 350–362. ISBN 1405188200.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help) - ^ Sands, Kristin Zahra (2006). Sufi commentaries on the Qur'an in classical Islam (1. publ., transferred to digital print. ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0415366852.
- ^ Keeler, Annabel (2006). "Sufi tafsir as a Mirror: al-Qushayri the murshid in his Lataif al-isharat". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 8 (1): 1–21.
- ^ Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, The Principles of Interpretation of the Quran [dead link]
- ^ a b c Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, Topic: Decisive and Ambiguous verses and "ta'wil" [dead link]
- ^ Tabatabaee (1988), pp. 37–45
- ^ Mojaddedi, Jawid (2008). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an (Pbk. ed. ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 363–373. ISBN 1405188200.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help) - ^ a b Elias, Jamal (2010). "Sufi tafsir Reconsidered: Exploring the Development of a Genre". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 12: 41–55.
- ^ a b Corbin (1993), p.7
- ^ Tabatabaee, Tafsir Al-Mizan [dead link]
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.13
- ^ Aslan, Reza (20 November 2008). "How To Read the Quran". Slate. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
- ^ An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo, Matba‘at at-Tadamun n.d.), 380.
- ^ Monthlycrescent.com
- ^ "More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran". Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review. 12 August 2010.
- ^ Bloom, Jonathan (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 42.
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Translations of the Quran
- ^ [1]
- ^ "Surah 3 – Read Quran Online". Retrieved 21 November 2010.
- ^ Nelson, Kristina (2001). The art of reciting the Qur'an (New ed.). Cairo [u.a.]: American Univ. in Cairo Press. ISBN 9774245946.
- ^ Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings". Studia Islamica (91): 5–22.
- ^ Melchert, Christopher (2008). "The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another". Journal of Quranic Studies. 10 (2): 73–87.
- ^ Hekmat Nasser, Shady (2012). The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran: The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 9004240810.
- ^ Dutton, Yasin (2001). "An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 3 (2): 71–89.
- ^ Rabb, Intisar (2006). "Non-Canonical Readings of the Qur'an: Recognition and Authenticity (The Ḥimṣī Reading)". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 8 (2): 88–127.
- ^ Peter G. Riddell, Tony Street, Anthony Hearle Johns, Islam: essays on scripture, thought and society : a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns, pp. 170–174, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5, ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5
- ^ Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp, 134–136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth
- ^ Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg
- ^ Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp, 134-136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-760-2, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111-112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth
- ^ Watson 1968, p. 435 ; Clogg 1979, p. 67
- ^ Krek 1979, p. 203
- ^ First Printed Edition of the Qur'an
- ^ The First Printed Complete Arabic Quran
- ^ East Meets West In Venice: The First-Ever Printed Arabic Edition Of Quran
- ^ The Qur'an in Manuscript and Print. "The Qur'anic Script". Retrieved 2007-06-05.
- ^ 3:3 نزل عليك الكتاب بالحق مصدقا لما بين يديه وانزل التوراة والانجيل
- ^ Quran 2:285
- ^ USC.edu [dead link]
- ^ Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), Abraham's children: Jews, Christians and Muslims in conversation, by. T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55 - 66.
- ^ Esposito, John L. The Future of Islam. Oxford University Press US, 2010. ISBN 978-0-19-516521-0 p. 40
- ^ Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an by Signey Griffith, p.112, in The Qurʼān in its historical context, Gabriel Said Reynolds, ed. Psychology Press, 2008
- ^ Qur'an-Bible Comparison: A Topical Study of the Two Most Influential and Respectful Books in Western and Middle Eastern Civilizations by Ami Ben-Chanan, p. 197–198, Trafford Publishing, 2011
- ^ New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1967, the Catholic University of America, Washington DC, Vol. VII, p.677
- ^ "On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran" by Ibn Rawandi, found in What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text and Commentary, Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, ed. ISBN 978-1-57392-945-5
- ^ Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, Literature and the Quran, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 3, pp. 213, 216
- ^ dictionary.reference.com: koran
- ^ dictionary.reference.com: quran
- ^ Cambridge dictionary: koran
- ^ Cambridge dictionary: quran
Further reading
Introductory texts:
- Hixon, Lex (2003). The heart of the Qurʼan : an introduction to Islamic spirituality (2. ed. ed.). Quest. ISBN 0835608220.
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has extra text (help) - Hawting, G.R. (1993). Approaches to the Qur'ān (1. publ. ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-05755-4.
- Rippin, Andrew (2006). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an. Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-1752-4.
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1988). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7103-0266-3.
- Neal Robinson, Discovering the Qur'an, Georgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58901-024-6
- Sells, Michael, Approaching the Qur'ān: The Early Revelations, White Cloud Press, Book & CD edition (November 15, 1999). ISBN 978-1-883991-26-5
- Wild, Stefan (1996). The Quʼran as Text. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09300-3.
- Bell, Richard (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0597-2.
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suggested) (help) - Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. Major Themes of the Qur'an (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70286-5.
- Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies.
- Peters, Francis E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12373-8.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam: Religion, History and Civilization. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.
- Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34711-4.
- Esposito, John (2000). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513526-8.
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suggested) (help) - Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2.
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(help) - Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. Major Themes of the Qur'an (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70286-5.
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Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir):
- Al-Tabari, Jāmiʻ al-bayān ʻan taʼwīl al-qurʼān, Cairo 1955–69, transl. J. Cooper (ed.), The Commentary on the Qurʼān, Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-19-920142-6
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan.
Topical studies:
- Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Women in the Qur'an, Traditions and Interpretation, Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (June 1, 1996), ISBN 978-0-19-511148-4
- Gibson, Dan (2011). Qur’anic Geography: A Survey and Evaluation of the Geographical References in the Qur’an with Suggested Solutions for Various Problems and Issues. Independent Scholars Press, Canada. ISBN 978-0-9733642-8-6.
- McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (1991). Qurʼānic Christians : an analysis of classical and modern exegesis. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36470-6.
- Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide [especially in comparative Qur'anic and Biblical exegesis]. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-978-0-06-143828-8
Literary criticism:
- M. M. Al-Azami (2003). The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments (First ed.). UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 1-872531-65-2.
- Gunter Luling (2003). A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (580 Seiten, lieferbar per Seepost). ISBN 978-81-208-1952-8.
- Luxenberg, Christoph (2004). The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran, Berlin, Verlag Hans Schiler, 1 May 2007. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8.
- Puin, Gerd R.. "Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in Sana'a", in The Qurʾan as Text, ed. Stefan Wild, E. J. Brill 1996, pp. 107–111.
- Wansbrough, John. Quranic Studies, Oxford University Press, 1977
Encyclopedias:
- Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Jane Dammen McAuliffe et al. (eds.) (First ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. 2001–2006. ISBN 978-90-04-11465-4.
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: CS1 maint: others (link) - The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Oliver Leaman et al. (eds.) (First ed.). Routledge. 2005. ISBN 978-0-415-77529-8.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - The Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur’an. Muzaffar Iqbal et al. (eds.) (First ed.). Center for Islamic Sciences. January 2013. ISBN 978-1-926620-00-8.
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Academic journals:
- "Journal of Qur'anic Studies / Majallat al-dirāsāt al-Qurʹānīyah". School of Oriental and African Studies. 1999–present. ISSN 1465-3591.
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(help) - "Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies". Medina, Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex. 2006–present.
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External links
Quran browsers and translations:
- Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator
- Quran.com
- Al-Quran.info
- Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)
Word-for-word analysis:
- Quranic Arabic Corpus, shows syntax and morphology for each word.
- Word for Word English Translation – emuslim.com
Manuscripts:
Other resources:
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