2020 Inner Mongolia protests | |||
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Part of Ethnic issues in China, Language assimilation, Regional language education in China | |||
Date | 31 August 2020UTC+8 | –ongoing,||
Location | |||
Caused by | A two-part curriculum reform that (1) replace Mongolian as the medium of instruction by Standard Mandarin in three specified subjects and (2) replace three regional textbooks, printed in Mongolian script, by the nationally-unified textbook series | ||
Goals | Rescind the curriculum reform | ||
Status | Ongoing | ||
Parties | |||
| |||
Casualties | |||
Injuries | More than dozens[1] | ||
Arrested | More than dozens[1] |
2020 Inner Mongolia protests | |||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||
Simplified Chinese | 2020年内蒙古抗议 | ||||||
Traditional Chinese | 2020年內蒙古抗議 | ||||||
Literal meaning | 2020 Inner Mongolia protest | ||||||
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Mongolian name | |||||||
Mongolian Cyrillic | 2020 Өвөрмонголын эсэргүүцэл 2020 Övörmongolin esergüütsel |
The 2020 Inner Mongolia protests is an ongoing protest from 31 August 2020 caused by a curriculum reform imposed on ethnic schools by the China's Inner Mongolia Department of Education. The two-part reform replace Mongolian as the medium of instruction by Standard Mandarin in three specified subjects and replace three regional textbooks, printed in Mongolian script, by the nationally-unified textbook series edited by the Ministry of Education, written in Standard Mandarin.[2][3][4] On a broader scale, the opposition to the curriculum change reflects ethnic issues in China and the decline of regional language education in China .[5]
The three subjects in concern are Language and Literature (referring Standard Mandarin) from first grade, Morality and Rule of law from first grade (a variant of civic education) and History from seventh grade.[3][4] The reform was part of the national textbook reform rolled out elsewhere in China from Autumn 2017 to eliminate various provincial textbooks by the nationally-unified textbook series,[2][6] which has attracted repeated criticism elsewhere in China from 2017.[7][8]
The parents and students of the ethnic schools strongly opposed the curriculum reform. The sentiment spread to other Chinese Mongols not attending those schools, leading to protests still ongoing. While seen as an attempt to assimilate ethnic minority, [2][9] observers also note it exemplifies the "second generation's ethnic policy" under Chinese Communist Party (CCP) general secretary and President Xi Jinping, who "envisioned the melting pot formula of the West, in particular the U.S.A., as the ultimate solution to the ethnic problems".[9][10] Xi Jinping "rejects the old Soviet-based system, which allowed relative autonomy and preservation of language and culture in designated regions, in favor of a new melting pot approach".[9]
Background
Political history of Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia has, for a long time, experienced lesser level of violence and hostility than Xinjiang and Tibet.[2] The region "was seen to have been largely pacified over many decades of Han migration, intermarriage and repression".[2] Large-scale Han migration began from 1912 during the Beiyang government period when land became freely traded.[11] By 1937, the aggregated figure of the census of the Nanking Nationalist government-ruled Suiyuan Province and Chahar Province and the census of Japanese-puppet Manchukuo and Mongol United Autonomous Government, reported 3,720,000 Hans and 860,000 Mongols (roughly 8:2 ratio) within modern Inner Mongolian boundary.[11] That ratio continues today.[11]
It was the scene of a brutal purge, known as the Inner Mongolia incident in 1967-1969, during the Cultural Revolution which led to the deaths of more than 16,000 to 22,000.[12] Despite economic development, there are still a level of resentments against the government's policies deemed to be anti-Mongol, which has been documented since 1990s.[13] In May 2011, massive unrest erupted when a coal truck collided and killed a Chinese Mongol herdman, and was later followed with regional unrests which complained of the environmental impact of mining and unfair development policies in the region.[14]
Since Xi Jinping has assumed power as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China in 2012, he has increased efforts to assimilate the people with mainland China.[15]
Local languages
Most Chinese Mongols and Han Chinese in Inner Mongolia are not native speakers of Standard Mandarin (which is based on the broader Beijing Mandarin). The top four languages native to Inner Mongolia are Jin language (not part of Mandarin), Northeastern Mandarin, a variety of Mongolian dialects and Lanzhou-Ningxia Mandarin.[16][17][18] No matter which language is their native, the 2020 curriculum reform ensures every student in Inner Mongolia takes three specified subjects in Standard Mandarin, namely Language and Literature from first grade, Morality and Rule of law from first grade (a variant of civic education) and History from seventh grade. This received support from ethnic Han Chinese of the region, many saw it as an effort to push for national unity, but this has been greeted with skepticism and suspicion from the ethnic Mongols.
Origin of protest: Curriculum reform, 2020
The two-part reform replace Mongolian as the medium of instruction by Standard Mandarin in three subjects and replace three regional textbooks, printed in Mongolian script, by the nationally-unified textbook series edited by the Ministry of Education, written in Standard Mandarin.[2][3][4]
The three subjects in concern are Language and Literature (referring Standard Mandarin) from first grade, Morality and Rule of law from first grade (a variant of civic education) and History from seventh grade.[3][4] The reform was part of the national textbook reform rolled out elsewhere in China from Autumn 2017 to eliminate various provincial textbooks by the nationally-unified textbook series ,[2][6]which has attracted repeated criticism elsewhere in China from 2017.[7][8] This policy has been applied in every province, including Xinjiang and Tibet, and is now making inroad into Inner Mongolia.[6]
While seen as an attempt to assimilate ethnic minority, [2] Observers also note it exemplifies the "second-generation's ethnic policy" under CCP general secretary and President Xi Jinping, who "envisioned the melting pot formula of the West, in particular the U.S.A., as the ultimate solution to the ethnic problems".[9][10] Xi Jinping "rejects the old Soviet-based system, which allowed relative autonomy and preservation of language and culture in designated regions, in favor of a new melting pot approach".[9]
Protests
Timeline
According to Voice of America Chinese, Bainu, the only Mongolian-based social media for ethnic Mongols in China, was officially shut down on 23 August 2020; the Chinese authorities refused to comment.[19] The following day, the U.S. government-founded Radio Free Asia reported that hundreds of teachers in the Inner Mongolian cities of Tongliao and Ulaanhad had to attend “urgent, secret meetings” to discuss orders from the CCP for a state-supported “bilingual education program” to switch elementary and high school curriculum from Mongolian to Mandarin Chinese.[20]
Sign of public defiance began in 30 August, when students in Inner Mongolia protesting against the new Mandarin Chinese language program.[21] However, it remained local until 31 August 2020, when the Inner Mongolian education department announced that Mongolian language would be removed in history, politics, language and literature subjects, started from 1 September, and will become officially effects, with other subjects to be added.[22]
Following the annunciation of the decree, thousand of ethnic Mongols embraced the protest who saw this as an attempt by the Chinese government to turn Mongolian language into a foreign language in their homeland, one of the rare case of public defiance in China, where censorship is enforced.[1] The protesters considered this as an attempt by the Chinese government to curb them from learning the Mongolian language and to disconnect them from their nomadic background. To further showing the defiance, many Mongol families announced they would not send their children to schools until Mongolian language is reinstated as an education language in Inner Mongolia.[23]
In a similar case in Tongliao, a prefecture of Inner Mongolia, parents found the news only after sending their kids to a boarding school, which led to the protests. The parents then besieged the school, before being repelled by the police.[23] After 21:00, the authorities released their children from the school despite rampant pressure.[23] All Mongolian-based ethnic schools went quiet aftermath while the authorities sought to persuade families to bring children back to school.[23] In another unknown location, the families of their children refused to let children go, clashed with police and managed to break the barricade to get back their children.[24] Information by Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, a Mongol-based advocacy group in the United States, revealed that parents and the students chanted "We are Mongolians! Our mother tongue is Mongolian, and we will die for our mother tongue!".[22]
Resentment against forced Mandarin-based education was also reflected on the Chinese social media like Weibo and WeChat by Mongol users, however it was removed immediately by the authorities.[24]
On 1 September, staff at a school in Naiman county told the BBC that only around 40 students had registered for the semester in place of the usual 1,000. Some subsequently changed their minds, and only some 10 remained.[24] On the same time, 300,000 ethnic Mongol students went on strike against the policy imposed by Beijing.[25]
Even among those ethnic Mongols who support Chinese government, many Mongols objected the plan, with one Mongol, using short video app Kuaishou “I am Chinese, I am Mongolian, you can take anything from me except my mother language. Without language, I cannot say that I am Mongolian,” in a following demonstration against the policy.[26]
There is also a sign of disobedience among ethnic Mongol police, where several ethnic Mongol police refused to comply with the order, as one unnamed ethnic Mongol policeman responded.[27]
#savethemongolianlanguage hashtag
Hashtag #savethemongolianlanguage has become a top phenomenon trend among ethnic Mongols following the attempt to relegate Mongolian in favor to Mandarin Chinese, widely used by Mongol users in Twitter, Facebook, Reddit and other non-Chinese social media apps.[28][29]
Raising of the Black Banner
In 2 September, several ethnic Mongols participated in the raising of khar suld (Black Banner/хар сүлд in Mongolian), which was recorded in TikTok. The raising of khar suld has an implied connotation used only when Mongols fought against an enemy. By raising the black banner, the Mongols were believed to have declared war against Chinese government's policy, implying the possible prolonging of the protests.[25][30]
Solidarity protests
In addition to the ongoing protests in Inner Mongolia, ethnic Mongols from abroad also demonstrated solidarity.
Dozens of Mongolian protesters marched to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs headquarter in Ulaanbaatar demanded reaction against ongoing repression of Mongol rights in China.[31] A similar sense of solidarity protests also occurred in the United States, where the Mongols, led by the ethnic-based Inner Mongolian People's Party, which is banned in China, also demonstrated against perceived Chinese oppression on Mongols.[32]
Ethnic Mongols in Japan also joined the protest campaign, led by Inner Mongolian-based professor Yang Hai from Shizuoka University, against the newly-established bilingual education campaign that was deemed to be downgrading Mongolian language status.[33]
Maksim Tsedenov, a Russian national of ethnic Mongol Oirat origin from Kalmykia, known as "ZaaN", launched a YouTube campaign calling to save Mongolian language against ongoing Chinese repression of Inner Mongolians.[34][35]
Reactions
China
The Chinese Communist Party-sanctioned state media like Xinhua News Agency and China Daily have largely ignored the protests and its demands at first, instead focusing on the planned festivals held in Inner Mongolia to social life of ethnic Mongols.[36][37][38] However, on the same time, Chinese officials were found to have traveled to Inner Mongolia trying to persuade families to send their children back to schools, although there was a strong objection from Mongol families.[23]
After days of concealing information, in 4 September, the CCP-sanctioned Global Times started publishing accusation of "disinformation" with regard to bilingual education policy.[39] On the same time, State Councilor and police minister Zhao Kezhi visited the region, where he openly accused the protests as a form of terrorism and separatism against China.[40] It was followed by Chinese police of the region offered bounty cash for anyone who could identify people participating in anti-government protests, while defending its policy in accordance of "protecting minority rights".[41] The bounty the government gave was reportedly about 1,000 yuan ($146), and followed with intense crackdown against ethnic Mongols criticizing government's policy.[26]
On the same time, Chinese police force has been deployed and increasing its activities across Inner Mongolia, with a number of people arrested for supporting the protests.[27] Chinese government's officials have also threatened families that refused to send children to schools will be stripped of social benefits.[42]
The bilingual law received significant support from ethnic Han Chinese of the region, many Han Chinese families supported the government and discouraged the use of Mongolian language under the pretext of Chinese common nationality. In addition, Han-based schools continue operating as normal.[27]
Expulsion of journalists
In 4 September, an American journalist working for Los Angeles Times was allegedly detained, and mistreated, before getting expelled by the Chinese authorities from the violative Inner Mongolia for her coverage; she was rejected any contact to the United States Embassy.[43]
International
Former President of Mongolia, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, voiced his support for the protesters.[44] Many Mongols were outraged following the reports, although economic dependence on China largely undermines the opportunity to help.[25]
The leader of the IMPP, Temtsiltu Shobtsood, who lives in exile in Germany, accused the Chinese government of planning to commit a cultural genocide against the Mongols.[24] In commonality with Shobtsood, Enghebatu Togochog, the chairman of U.S.-based Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Centre, saw it as an act by civil disobedience against Chinese government's attempt to wipe out Mongolian traits in Inner Mongolia.[45]
Christopher P. Atwood, a professor in the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at the University of Pennsylvania, where he teaches the history of Mongolia and the Inner Asian borderlands of China, considered it as a projected plan to slowly wipe out Mongolian culture, beginning with these classes, and explained the policy as,
The plan is to begin transitioning to the state-compiled textbooks for ‘language and literature’, ‘morality and law (politics)’, and ‘history’ classes. The key point is that these classes will be taught in the national common language—Mandarin Chinese. This policy will be formally implemented from the beginning of school, this 1 September, starting with ‘language and literature’ in first and seventh grade,[45]
He further added,
So, from 2022, if all goes according to plan, all students in Inner Mongolia will be taking all three of these classes solely in Chinese, on the basis of the Chinese state-compiled textbooks. Previously, in many schools in Inner Mongolia, all of these subjects were taught in Mongolian through high school.[45]
There has been a number of skepticism with regard to the ongoing protests. An ongoing international petition by ethnic Mongols, “Save Education in Inner Mongolia,” has received only no more than 21,000 signatures, which is less than what Tibet and Uyghurs received back in 2019 and 2020.[25] Japan-based Southern Mongolian Congress have been requesting the United States Congress to do the same with the Inner Mongolians.[25]
See also
- Ethnic issues in China
- Ethnic groups in Chinese history
- Soviet-era Korenizatsiya
- 2011 Inner Mongolia unrest
- Inner Mongolia
- Mongols in China
References
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=
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- ^ a b 廖瑾 (27 August 2019). "新版部编语文教材总主编温儒敏:欢迎批评指正,但反对炒作" [Wen Rumin, the Chief Editor of the "Language and Literature" volume of the new Nationally-unified textbook series, commented, "While Welcoming Criticism and Corrections, Media Hype is not Welcomed"]. The Paper (澎湃新聞) (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 4 September 2020.
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- ^ Xu, GuangHua; Wu, JianGuo (19 December 2016). "Social-ecological transformations of Inner Mongolia: a sustainability perspective". Ecological Processes. 5 (1): 23. doi:10.1186/s13717-016-0067-z. ISSN 2192-1709. S2CID 55932564.
{{cite journal}}
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