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{{Short description|1971 Bangladesh–Pakistan armed conflict}} |
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{{Infobox Military Conflict |
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{{pp-extended|small=yes}} |
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|conflict=Bangladesh Liberation War |
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{{Use British English|date=December 2015}} |
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|partof= |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}} |
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|image=[[Image:PakSurrender.jpg|300px]] |
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{{Infobox military conflict |
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|caption=General Niazi signing the historic surrender document. In the left is General [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]], commander of the allied forces in the east. |
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| conflict = Bangladesh Liberation War<br />মুক্তিযুদ্ধ<br />(Muktijuddho) |
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|date=[[March 26]], [[1971]] - [[December 16]], [[1971]] |
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| partof = the [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|Indo-Pakistani conflicts]] and the [[Cold War]] |
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|place=[[Bangladesh]] |
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| image = BangladeshLiberationWarMontage.jpg |
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|casus= |
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| image_size = 280px |
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|territory=[[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]] |
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| caption = '''Clockwise from top left''': [[Martyred Intellectuals Memorial]]; [[Mukti Bahini|Bangladesh Forces]] [[howitzer]]; [[Lieutenant general (Pakistan)|Lt. Gen.]] [[A. A. K. Niazi|Amir Niazi]] signs the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender]] to Indian forces in the presence of [[Lieutenant general (India)|Lt. Gen.]] [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|Jagjit Singh]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl%2F5312%2FInstrument+of+Surrender+of+Pakistan+forces+in+Dacca|title=Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan forces in Dacca|website=mea.gov.in|quote=The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding-in –chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the eastern theatre.|access-date=14 July 2017|archive-date=27 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005435/http://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl%2F5312%2FInstrument+of+Surrender+of+Pakistan+forces+in+Dacca|url-status=live}}</ref> and the {{ship|PNS|Ghazi||6}} |
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|result=• Surrender of Pakistan<br /> |
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| place = '''Predominantly:'''<br />[[East Pakistan]] ([[History of Bangladesh after independence|present-day]] [[Bangladesh]])<br /> |
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• Decisive Indian victory<br /> |
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'''Spillover:'''<br /> |
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• Birth of Bangladesh |
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''Eastern Front:'' |
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|combatant1=[[Bangladesh]] and [[India]] |
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* [[Bangladesh–India border|India–East Pakistan border]] |
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|combatant2=[[Pakistan]] |
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* [[India–Bangladesh enclaves|India–East Pakistan enclaves]] |
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|commander1=• General [[M A G Osmani]]<br />• General [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]] |commander2=General [[A. A. K. Niazi]] |
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* parts of [[East India|East]] and [[Northeast India]] |
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|strength1=India: 500,000+<br /> Mukti Bahini NA* |
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''Western Front:'' |
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|strength2='''Pakistan Army''': 365,000<br /> |
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* [[Indo-Pakistani border|India–West Pakistan border]] |
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'''Paramilitary''': 280,000 <ref name=ACIG> ''[http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_326.shtml India - Pakistan War, 1971; Introduction]'' - Tom Cooper, Khan Syed Shaiz Ali</ref> |
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** [[Line of Control]] ([[Kashmir]]) |
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|casualties1='''India:''' 1,426 [[Killed in action|KIA]]<br> 3,611 Wounded (Official)<br>'''Mukti Bahini:''' NA* |
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** [[Zero Point railway station|Zero Point]] |
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|casualties2=~8,000 [[Killed in action|KIA]] <br> ~10,000 Wounded <br> 93,000 [[Prisoner of War|POWs]] |
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''Indian Ocean:'' |
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|notes=Civilian death toll: Between 307,013–3,000,000<ref name=MathewWhite>Matthew White's ''[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm#Bangladesh Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century]''</ref> |
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* [[Bay of Bengal]] (Eastern Front) |
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* [[Arabian Sea]] (Western Front) |
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| coordinates = |
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| latitude = |
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| date = 26 March – 16 December 1971<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=3|day1=26|year1=1971|month2=12|day2=16|year2=1971}}) |
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| territory = East Pakistan [[Secession|secedes]] from [[Pakistan]] as the [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]] |
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| result = {{bulleted list|Bangladeshi-Indian victory<ref name="Shamshad2017">{{cite book |author=Rizwana Shamshad |title=Bangladeshi Migrants in India: Foreigners, Refugees, or Infiltrators? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9789DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 |date=3 October 2017 |publisher=OUP India |isbn=978-0-19-909159-1 |pages=119– |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214830/https://books.google.com/books?id=9789DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lu2018">{{cite book |author=Jing Lu |title=On State Secession from International Law Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MJ1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |date=30 October 2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-97448-4 |pages=211– |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214833/https://books.google.com/books?id=4MJ1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="KaulJha2018">{{cite book |author1=J.L. Kaul |author2=Anupam Jha |title=Shifting Horizons of Public International Law: A South Asian Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e5FDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241 |date=8 January 2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-3724-2 |pages=241– |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214803/https://books.google.com/books?id=2e5FDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241 |url-status=live}}</ref>|Surrender of Pakistani forces}} |
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| combatant1 = {{flagdeco|Bangladesh|1971}} [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]] |
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* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} [[Mukti Bahini]] |
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{{flag|India}} |
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* {{flagicon image|Indian Armed Forces.svg}} [[Indian Armed Forces]]<br />(3–16 Dec.) |
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| combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Pakistan.svg}} [[West Pakistan|Pakistan]]<br />([[Government of East Pakistan|Govt. of East Pakistan]]) |
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* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.svg}} [[Pakistan Armed Forces]] |
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{{Hr}} |
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Paramilitary forces and militias: |
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* [[Jamaat-e-Islami (Pakistan)|Jamaat-e-Islami]] |
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* [[East Pakistan Central Peace Committee|Nagorik Shanti Committee]] |
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* [[Razakars (Pakistan)|Razakars]] |
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* [[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badr]] |
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* [[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]] |
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| commander1 = {{flagdeco|Bangladesh|1971}} '''[[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]'''<br />([[President of Bangladesh|President]] of the [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]])<br /> |
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{{flagdeco|Bangladesh|1971}} '''[[Tajuddin Ahmad]]'''<br />([[Prime Minister of Bangladesh|Prime Minister]] of the [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} [[General officer|Gen]] [[M. A. G. Osmani]]<br />([[Commander-in-chief|Cdr-in-C]], [[Bangladesh Armed Forces|Bangladesh Forces]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} [[Major (rank)|Maj.]] [[K. M. Shafiullah]]<br />(Commander, [[S Force (Bangladesh)|S Force]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} [[Major (rank)|Maj.]] [[Ziaur Rahman]]<br />(Commander, [[Z Force (Bangladesh)|Z Force]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} [[Major (rank)|Maj.]] [[Khaled Mosharraf]]<br /> |
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(Commander, [[K Force (Bangladesh)|K Force]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} [[Group Captain|Gp Capt.]] [[A. K. Khandker]]<br />(Second-in-Command, [[Bangladesh Armed Forces|Bangladesh Forces]])<br />{{flagdeco|India}} '''[[V. V. Giri]]'''<br />([[President of India]])<br />{{flagdeco|India}} '''[[Indira Gandhi]]'''<br />([[Prime Minister of India]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[General officer|Gen]] [[Sam Manekshaw]]<br />([[Chief of Army Staff (India)|Chief of Army Staff]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[Lieutenant General|Lt Gen]] [[Jagjit Singh Arora|J. S. Arora]]<br /> |
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([[General Officer Commanding-in-Chief|GOC-in-C]], [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[Lieutenant General|Lt Gen]] [[Sagat Singh]]<br />(GOC-in-C, [[IV Corps (India)|IV Corps]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[Major General|Maj Gen]] [[Inderjit Singh Gill]]<br />(Dir., [[List of military operations of India|Military Operations]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[Major General|Maj Gen]] [[Om Prakash Malhotra|Om Malhotra]]<br />([[Chief of Staff|COS]], [[IV Corps (India)|IV Corps]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[Major General|Maj.Gen]] [[J. F. R. Jacob]]<br />(COS, Eastern Command)<br />{{flagdeco|India|army}} [[Major General|Maj.Gen]] [[Shabeg Singh]]<br />(Cdr Training of [[Mukti Bahini|MB]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|naval}} [[Vice Admiral|V.Adm]] [[Nilakanta Krishnan]]<br />([[Flag officer|FOC-in-C]], [[Eastern Naval Command]])<br />{{flagdeco|India|air force}} [[Air Marshal|AM]] [[Hari Chand Dewan]]<br />([[Air Officer Commander-in-Chief|AOC-in-C]], [[Eastern Air Command (India)|Eastern Air Command]]) |
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| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the President of Pakistan.svg}} '''[[Yahya Khan]]'''<br />([[President of Pakistan]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Prime Minister of Pakistan.svg}} '''[[Nurul Amin]]'''<br />([[Prime Minister of Pakistan]])<br />{{flagdeco|Pakistan}} [[Abdul Motaleb Malik]]<br />([[Governor of East Pakistan]])<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan).svg}} [[General officer|Gen.]] [[Abdul Hamid Khan (general)|A. H. Khan]]<br />([[Army Chief of Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Staff]], [[GHQ (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]])<br />{{flagdeco|Pakistan|army}} [[Lieutenant general|Lt. Gen.]] [[A. A. K. Niazi]]{{Surrendered}}<br />(Commander, [[Pakistan Eastern Command|Eastern Command]])<br />{{flagdeco|Pakistan|army}} [[Major general|Maj. Gen.]] [[Rao Farman Ali]]{{Surrendered}}<br />([[Military advisor|Mil. Adv.]], [[Government of East Pakistan|Govt. of East Pakistan]])<br />{{flagdeco|Pakistan|army}} [[Major general|Maj. Gen.]] [[Khadim Hussain Raja|Khadim Hussain]]{{Surrendered}}<br />([[General Officer Commanding|GOC]], [[Structure of the Pakistan Army|14th Infantry Div.]])<br />{{flagicon image|Pakistan Navy Rear Admiral.svg}} [[Rear admiral|Rr. Adm.]] [[Mohammad Shariff]]{{Surrendered}}<br />([[Flag officer|FOC]], Eastern Naval Command)<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Captain (naval)|Capt.]] [[Ahmad Zamir]]{{Surrendered}}<br />([[Commanding Officer|CO]], [[Pakistan Marines|Pakistan Marine Corps, East]])<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Commander (rank)|Cdr.]] [[Zafar Muhammad Khan|Zafar Muhammad]] {{KIA}}<br />([[Commanding officer|CO]], {{ship|PNS|Ghazi||6}})<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Air Marshal (Pakistan).svg|border=}} [[Air Commodore|Air Cdre.]] [[Inamul Haque Khan|Inamul Haque]]{{Surrendered}}<br />([[Air officer commanding|AOC]], Eastern Air Command)<br />{{flagdeco|Pakistan|air force}} [[Air Commodore|Air Cdre.]] [[Zafar Masud]]<br />(AOC, Eastern Air Cmnd. (1969–71)) |
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{{Hr}} |
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[[Khwaja Khairuddin|Syed Khwaja Khairuddin]]<br />(Chair, [[East Pakistan Central Peace Committee|Nagorik Shanti Committee]])<br />[[Ghulam Azam]]<br />([[Emir]] of [[Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh|Jamaat-e-Islami]])<br />[[File:Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami Flag Emblem.svg|25px]] [[Motiur Rahman Nizami]]<br />(Leader, [[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badr]])<br />[[Major general|Maj. Gen.]] Mohd. Jamshed<br />(Commander, [[Razakar (Pakistan)|Razakar]])<br />[[Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry]]<br />(Leader, [[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]]) |
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| units1 = |
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| units2 = |
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| strength1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} 175,000<ref name=ACIG/><ref>Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway By Owen Bennett-Jones, Lindsay Brown, John Mock, Sarina Singh, Pg 30</ref><br />{{flagicon image|Indian Armed Forces.svg}} 250,000<ref name=ACIG/> |
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| strength2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.svg}} ~91,000 regular troops{{NoteTag|name=fn1|Cooper and Ali's figures of 365,000 Pakistan Army and 280,000 paramilitary are for the entire Pakistan force, on the west and east fronts combined, when the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] broke out.<ref name=ACIG/> Cloughley clarifies that only a quarter of the 365,000 Pakistan Army, roughly 91,000, was in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cloughley |first=Brian |year=2016 |orig-year=First published 1999 |title=A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections |edition=4th |publisher=Simon and Schuster |pages=149, 222 |isbn=978-1-63144-039-7}}</ref>}}<br /> 280,000 Paramilitary forces{{NoteTag|name=fn1}}<br /> ~25,000 militiamen<ref>{{cite book |last=Praval |first=K. C. |year=1987 |title=Indian Army after Independence |publisher=Lancer International |page=442 |isbn=81-7062-014-7}}</ref> |
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| casualties1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg}} ~30,000 killed<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Thiranagama|editor-first1=Sharika|editor-last2=Kelly|editor-first2=Tobias |year=2012 |title=Traitors : suspicion, intimacy, and the ethics of state-building |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=978-0812222371}}</ref><br /> {{flagicon image|Indian Armed Forces.svg}} 1,426–1,525 killed<ref name="FallOfDacca">Figures from ''The Fall of Dacca'' by [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]] in ''The Illustrated Weekly of India'' dated 23 December 1973 quoted in {{cite book |last=Praval |first=K. C. |year=1987 |title=Indian Army after Independence |publisher=Lancer International |page=486 |isbn=81-7062-014-7}}</ref> <br /> 3,611–4,061 wounded<ref name="FallOfDacca"/> |
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| casualties2 = {{flagdeco|Pakistan}} ~8,000 killed<br />~10,000 wounded<br />90,000—93,000 captured<ref name="dailytimes1912005" >{{cite news |last=Khan |first=Shahnawaz |date=19 January 2005 |title=54 Indian PoWs of 1971 war still in Pakistan |url=http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/national/19-Jan-2005/54-indian-pows-of-1971-war-still-in-pakistan |location=Lahore |newspaper=Daily Times |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919100557/http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/national/19-Jan-2005/54-indian-pows-of-1971-war-still-in-pakistan |archive-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> (including 79,676 troops and 10,324—12,192 local militiamen)<ref name="FallOfDacca" /><ref>Figure from ''Pakistani Prisoners of War in India'' by Col S. P. Salunke p. 10 quoted in {{cite book |last=Praval |first=K. C. |year=1987 |title=Indian Army after Independence |publisher=Lancer International |page=485 |isbn=81-7062-014-7}})</ref> |
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| casualties3 = [[Bangladesh genocide|Civilian deaths]]:<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18049515 |title=Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged |publisher=BBC |date=13 May 2012 |access-date=13 May 2012 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215152004/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18049515 |url-status=live }}</ref> Estimates range between 300,000 and 3,000,000. |
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| notes = |
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| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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}} |
}} |
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{{Independence of Bangladesh}} |
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The '''Bangladesh Liberation War''' ([[#Nomenclature justifications|two other names]] are also used occasionally) refers to an armed conflict between [[West Pakistan]] (now [[Pakistan]]) and [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]) that lasted for roughly nine months, from [[26 March]] until [[16 December]] [[1971]]. The war resulted in Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan. |
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{{History of Bangladesh}} |
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The '''Bangladesh Liberation War'''{{NoteTag|This war is known in Bangla as ''Muktijuddho'' or ''Shwadhinota Juddho''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bJfcCPUr0OoC&q=+Muktijuddho&pg=PA289 ''Historical Dictionary of Bangladesh''], Page 289</ref> This war is also called the Civil War in Pakistan.<ref name="Social 2005 p93">{{cite book |last=Moss |first=Peter |title=Secondary Social Studies For Pakistan |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Karachi |isbn=9780195977042 |page=93 |oclc=651126824}}</ref>}} ({{lang-bn|মুক্তিযুদ্ধ}}, {{IPA-bn|mukt̪iɟud̪d̪ʱo|pron}}), also known as the '''Bangladesh War of Independence''', or simply the '''Liberation War''' in [[Bangladesh]], was a revolution and [[War|armed conflict]] sparked by the rise of the [[Bengali nationalism|Bengali nationalist]] and [[self-determination]] movement in [[East Pakistan]], which resulted in the independence of [[Bangladesh]]. The war began when the Pakistani [[Military dictatorship|military junta]] based in [[West Pakistan]]—under the orders of [[Yahya Khan]]—launched [[Operation Searchlight]] against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971, initiating the [[Bangladesh genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Paul |first=Priyam Pritim |date=2024-03-26 |title=Administrative dynamics in 1971’s War of Liberation |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2024/news/administrative-dynamics-1971s-war-liberation-3575151 |access-date=2024-06-19 |work=The Daily Star}}</ref> |
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==Reasons for war== |
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===Years before the war=== |
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[[British Raj|British rule]] in [[British India|India]] ended in August 1947. This was accompanied by the [[Partition of India]], whereby Muslim-majority areas in the east and west of the [[Indian subcontinent]] were constituted into a separate country, [[Pakistan]]. The Western zone was popularly (and for a period of time, also officially) termed [[West Pakistan]] and the Eastern zone (modern-day Bangladesh) was initially termed [[East Bengal]] and later, [[East Pakistan]]. The two zones were separated by several thousand miles of Indian territory. They were also very different from each other culturally, whether in language, the arts, music, cuisine or clothing. It was widely perceived that the west zone dominated the country, leading to the effective marginalization of the east zone. |
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In response to the violence, members of the [[Mukti Bahini]]—a [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[resistance movement]] formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians—launched a mass [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the [[Pakistan Armed Forces|Pakistani military]], liberating numerous towns and cities in the war's initial months. At first, the Pakistan Army regained momentum during the [[monsoon]], but, Bengali [[guerrillas]] counterattacked by carrying out widespread sabotage, including through [[Operation Jackpot]] against the [[Pakistan Navy]], while the nascent [[Bangladesh Air Force]] flew [[sortie]]s against Pakistani military bases.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jamal |first=Ahmed |date=5–17 October 2008 |title=Mukti Bahini and the liberation war of Bangladesh: A review of conflicting views |url=http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2008/4/1.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103014904/http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2008/4/1.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2015 |access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched [[Operation Chengiz Khan|preemptive air strikes]] on northern India. The subsequent [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistani War]] involved fighting on two fronts; with [[air supremacy]] achieved in the eastern theatre, and the rapid advance of the [[Mitro Bahini order of battle|Allied Forces of Mukti Bahini and the Indian military]], Pakistan [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|surrendered]] in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, in what remains to date the largest surrender of armed personnel since the [[Second World War]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivasaraju |first=Sugata |date=2021-12-21 |title=The Bangladeshi liberation has lessons for India today |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/the-bangladeshi-liberation-has-lessons-for-india-today/articleshow/88412623.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222204349/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/the-bangladeshi-liberation-has-lessons-for-india-today/articleshow/88412623.cms |archive-date=22 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-29 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Liberation War |url=https://bhclondon.org.uk/liberation-war |access-date=2024-05-19 |website=Bangladesh High Commission, London}}</ref> |
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===Economic exploitation=== |
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West Pakistan (consisting of four provinces: [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] and [[North-West Frontier Province]]) dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget than the more populous East. |
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Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of [[Non-cooperation movement (1971)|civil disobedience]] that formed after the [[1970 Pakistani general election|1970 election stalemate]]. The [[Pakistan Army]], backed by Islamists, created radical religious militias—the [[Razakar (Pakistan)|Razakars]], [[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badr]] and [[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]]—to assist it during raids on the local populace.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQHIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57|title=The World's Most Threatening Terrorist Networks and Criminal Gangs|last1=Schneider|first1=B.|last2=Post|first2=J.|last3=Kindt|first3=M.|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=9780230623293|page=57|language=en|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214803/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQHIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsrfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168|title=Pakistan: From the Rhetoric of Democracy to the Rise of Militancy|last=Kalia|first=Ravi|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136516412|page=168|language=en|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214843/https://books.google.com/books?id=NsrfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Pg 600. Schmid, Alex, ed. (2011). ''The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-41157-8}}.</ref><ref>Pg. 240 Tomsen, Peter (2011). ''The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers''. Public Affairs. {{ISBN|978-1-58648-763-8}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdrcAgAAQBAJ|title=Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|last2=Gates|first2=Professor Scott|year=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=9781472405791|language=en|access-date=21 August 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214838/https://books.google.com/books?id=PdrcAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and [[Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War|genocidal rape]], pursuing a systematic campaign of annihilation against nationalist Bengali civilians, students, [[intelligentsia]], religious minorities and armed personnel. The capital, [[Dhaka]], was the scene of numerous massacres, including the [[1971 Dhaka University massacre|Dhaka University massacre]]. [[Sectarian violence]] also broke out between Bengalis and [[Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh|Urdu-speaking Biharis]]. An estimated 10 million Bengali [[East Bengali refugees#1970s|refugees]] fled to neighbouring India, while 30 million were internally displaced.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA34 |title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L |last1=Totten |first1=Samuel |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313346422 |page=34 |language=en |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111192649/https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA34 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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{| class="infobox" border="1" width="350" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="background:#efefef; border: 1px solid #aaa; border-collapse: collapse;" width="100%" |
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<tr><td width="25%">Year</td> <td width="25%">Spending on West Pakistan (in [[crore]] [[Pakistani rupee|Rupees]])</td> <td width="25%">Spending on East Pakistan (in crore Rupees)</td> <td width="25%">Amount spent on East as percentage of West</td></tr> |
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The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the world's seventh-most populous country. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in [[Cold War]] tensions involving the United States, the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[China|People's Republic of China]]. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972. |
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<tr><td>1950/51-54/55</td> <td>1,129</td> <td>524</td> <td>46.4</td></tr> |
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<tr><td>1955/56-59/60</td> <td>1,655</td> <td>524</td> <td>31.7</td></tr> |
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== Background == |
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<tr><td>1960/61-64/65</td> <td>3,355</td> <td>1,404</td> <td>41.8</td></tr> |
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[[File:India religion map 1909 en.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A map of the [[British Raj]] in 1909 showing [[Muslim]] majority areas in green, including modern-day Bangladesh in the east and Pakistan in the west]] |
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<td>1965/66-69/70</td> <td>5,195</td> <td>2,141</td> <td>41.2</td> |
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<tr><td>Total</td> <td>11,334</td> <td>4,593</td> <td>40.5</td></tr> |
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Before the [[Partition of India|Partition of British India]], the [[Lahore Resolution]] initially envisaged separate [[Muslim]]-majority states in British India's eastern and northwestern zones. A proposal for an independent [[United Bengal]] was mooted by Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] in 1946 but opposed by the colonial authorities. The [[East Pakistan Renaissance Society]] advocated the creation of a [[sovereign state]] in eastern British India.<ref name="Sarasota Herald-Tribune">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VbYqAAAAIBAJ&pg=1342,6305096 |title=India Partition with Present Many Problems |work=Sarasota Herald-Tribune |date=8 June 1947 |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154917/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VbYqAAAAIBAJ&pg=1342,6305096 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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<tr><td colspan="4">''Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970-75, Vol. I, published by the planning commission of Pakistan''</td></tr> |
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Political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, [[Pakistan]] and India,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=78xTAAAAIBAJ&pg=1738,3655 |title=Britain Proposes Indian Partition |work=The Leader-Post |date=2 June 1947 |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154915/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=78xTAAAAIBAJ&pg=1738,3655 |url-status=live}}</ref> giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus, respectively, after the British departed. The [[Dominion of Pakistan]] comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west, with India in between.<ref name="Sarasota Herald-Tribune"/> |
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The western zone was popularly (and, for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern-day Bangladesh) was initially termed [[East Bengal]] and later East Pakistan. Although the two zones' population was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan, and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WPdUAAAAIBAJ&pg=7167,1795176 |title=Problems of Partition |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=14 June 1947 |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154916/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WPdUAAAAIBAJ&pg=7167,1795176 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the [[Bangladesh Awami League|Awami League]]) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and [[Types of nationalism#Cultural nationalism|cultural nationalism]] in East Pakistan was met by brutal<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html |title=Gendercide Watch: Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971 |website=gendercide.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721230201/http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html |archive-date=21 July 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 June 2017}}</ref> and suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed [[Operation Searchlight]].<ref name="epw">{{harvnb|Bose|2005|p=4465}}</ref> The Pakistan Army's violent crackdown<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/30/opinion/nixon-and-kissingers-forgotten-shame.html|title=Nixon and Kissinger's Forgotten Shame|last=Bass|first=Gary J.|date=29 September 2013|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 June 2017|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321044356/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/30/opinion/nixon-and-kissingers-forgotten-shame.html|url-status=live}}</ref> led to Awami League leader [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] [[Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence|declaring East Pakistan's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971]].<ref name=":1">{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Rk4fAAAAIBAJ&pg=2676,6420028 |title=Civil War Rocks East Pakistan |work=Daytona Beach Morning Journal |date=27 March 1971 |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154917/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Rk4fAAAAIBAJ&pg=2676,6420028 |url-status=live }}</ref> Most Bengalis supported this move, although some [[Islamism|Islamists]] and Biharis opposed it and sided with the Pakistan Army instead.<ref>{{harvnb|Bose|2005|p=4463}}</ref> |
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Pakistani President [[Yahya Khan|Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan]] ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government's authority, beginning the civil war.<ref name=":1" /> The war led a substantial number of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million)<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/research/refugees-in-india-partition-bangladesh-war-tibet-occupation-sri-lankan-tamils-rohingyas-mynamar-world-refugee-day-five-human-influxes-that-have-shaped-india-2864449/|title=World Refugee Day: Five human influxes that have shaped India|date=20 June 2016|work=The Indian Express|access-date=11 June 2017|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321044430/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/refugees-in-india-partition-bangladesh-war-tibet-occupation-sri-lankan-tamils-rohingyas-mynamar-world-refugee-day-five-human-influxes-that-have-shaped-india-2864449/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155-2,00.html|title=The World: India and Pakistan: Over the Edge|date=13 December 1971|magazine=Time|access-date=11 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523003701/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C910155-2%2C00.html|archive-date=23 May 2011|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> to flood [[East India|India's eastern provinces]].<ref name="report">''Crisis in South Asia – A report'' by Senator Edward Kennedy to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their Settlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, 1 November 1971, U.S. Govt. Press.pp6-7</ref> Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India actively aided and organised the Bangladeshi resistance army, the [[Mukti Bahini]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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=== Language controversy === |
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{{Main|Bengali language movement}} |
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In 1948, [[Governor-General of Pakistan|Governor-General]] [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] declared that "[[Urdu]], and only Urdu" would be Pakistan's federal language.<ref>{{Cite Banglapedia|title=Language Movement|author=Bashir Al Helal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BKzbHnFTfEC&pg=PA158|title=Sociolinguistics and Language Education|last1=Hornberger|first1=Nancy H.|last2=McKay|first2=Sandra Lee|year=2010|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=9781847694010|pages=158|language=en|access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214842/https://books.google.com/books?id=2BKzbHnFTfEC&pg=PA158|url-status=live}}</ref> But Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]]; in East Bengal, the native language was [[Bengali language|Bengali]], one of the two most easterly branches of the [[Indo-European languages]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/languagecentre/languages/bengali/|title=SOAS Language Centre – Bengali Language Courses|website=soas.ac.uk|access-date=7 December 2014|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321044427/https://www.soas.ac.uk/languagecentre/languages/bengali/|url-status=live}}</ref> Bengali speakers constituted over 56% of Pakistan's population.<ref>{{cite news|title=Language Movement paved way for independence: Hasina|url=https://m.bdnews24.com/en/detail/bangladesh/1861277|newspaper=bdnews24|date=20 February 2021|access-date=12 March 2021|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321044430/https://m.bdnews24.com/en/detail/bangladesh/1861277|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=From Dhaka to fall of Dhaka|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/amp/405968-from-dhaka-to-fall-of-dhaka|access-date=12 March 2021|date=15 December 2018|newspaper=The News (Pakistan)|first=Wajid Shamsul|last=Hasan|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321044402/https://www.thenews.com.pk/amp/405968-from-dhaka-to-fall-of-dhaka|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The [[Bengali language movement|Language Movement]] began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali script]] from currency and stamps, which were in place since the [[British Raj]].<ref name="International Mother Language Day">{{Cite web|title = International Mother Language Day|url = https://www.un.org/en/events/motherlanguageday/|website = United Nations|access-date = 19 February 2016|archive-date = 17 May 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190517175429/https://www.un.org/en/events/motherlanguageday/|url-status = live}}</ref> |
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The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the [[Language Movement Day]]. In memory of the deaths, [[UNESCO]] declared 21 February [[International Mother Language Day]] in November 1999.<ref name="International Mother Language Day"/> |
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=== Disparities === |
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Although, East Pakistan had the larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; width:550px;text-align:center;" |
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!width=16%| Year |
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!width=28%| Spending on West Pakistan (in millions of [[Pakistani rupee]]s) |
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!width=28%| Spending on East Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees) |
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!width=28%| Amount spent on East as percentage of West |
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|- |
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| 1950–55 || style="text-align:right;"| 11,290 || style="text-align:right;"| 5,240 || style="text-align:right;"| 46.4 |
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|- |
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| 1955–60 || style="text-align:right;"| 16,550 || style="text-align:right;"| 5,240 || style="text-align:right;"| 31.7 |
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|- |
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| 1960–65|| style="text-align:right;"|33,550 ||align="right"| 14,040 || style="text-align:right;"| 41.8 |
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|- |
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| 1965–70 ||align="right"|51,950 ||align="right"| 21,410 || style="text-align:right;"| 41.2 |
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|- |
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| '''Total''' ||align="right"|'''113,340''' ||align="right"| '''45,930''' || style="text-align:right;"| '''40.5''' |
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|- |
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| colspan="4" | <small>''Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol. I,<br /> published by the planning commission of Pakistan.''</small> |
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|} |
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East Pakistan was already economically disadvantaged at the time of Pakistan's creation yet this economic disparity only increased under Pakistani rule. Factors included not only the deliberate state discrimination in developmental policies but also the fact that the presence of the country's capital and more immigrant businessmen in the Western Wing directed greater government allocations there. Due to low numbers of native businessmen in East Pakistan, substantial labour unrest and a tense political environment, there were also much lower foreign investments in the eastern wing. The Pakistani state's economic outlook was geared towards urban industry, which was not compatible with East Pakistan's mainly agrarian economy.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 136">{{harvnb|van Schendel|2009|p=136}}</ref> |
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Also, Bengalis were underrepresented in the Pakistani military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5% of the overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts.<ref name="Library">{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+bd0139%29 |title=Library of Congress studies |publisher=Memory.loc.gov |date=1 July 1947 |access-date=23 June 2011 |archive-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705131255/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r%3Ffrd/cstdy:@field(DOCID%2Bbd0139) |url-status=live }}</ref> West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined", unlike [[Pashtuns]] and [[Punjabis]]; Bengalis dismissed the "[[martial race]]s" notion as ridiculous and humiliating.<ref name="Library" /> |
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Between 1948 and 1960, East Pakistan produced 70% of all of Pakistan's exports, while it only received 25% of import earnings. In 1948 (shortly after independence from Britain), East Pakistan had 11 textile mills while the West had 9. In 1971, the number of textile mills in the West had grown to 150 while that in the East had only gone up to 26. Furthermore, 2.6 billion dollars' (in 1971 exchange rates) worth of resources were transferred over time from East Pakistan to West Pakistan. It was widely felt in East Pakistan that much of the income generated by the east was diverted to the benefit of the west, especially towards fighting wars in [[Kashmir]]. |
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Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] over [[Kashmir]] also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under-strength [[infantry]] division and 15 [[Military aircraft#Combat aircraft|combat aircraft]] without tank support were in East Pakistan to repulse any Indian retaliations during the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/dec/demons.htm |title=Demons of December – Road from East Pakistan to Bangladesh |website=Defencejournal.com |access-date=23 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110609122558/http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/dec/demons.htm |archive-date=9 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Rounaq Jahan |author-link=Rounaq Jahan |title=Pakistan: Failure in National Integration |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1972 |pages=166–167 |isbn=978-0-231-03625-2}}</ref> |
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===Political differences=== |
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Although East Pakistan accounted for a majority of the country's population, political power remained firmly in the hands of West Pakistanis, specifically the Punjabis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "'''One Unit'''" scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing's votes. Ironically, '''after''' the East broke away to form Bangladesh, the Punjab province insisted that politics in the rump West Pakistan now be decided on the basis of a straightforward vote, since Punjabis were more numerous than the other groups, such as Sindhis, Pathans, or Balochs. |
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=== Ideological and cultural differences === |
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After the assassination of [[Liaquat Ali Khan]], political power began to be concentrated in the President of Pakistan, and eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President. |
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[[File:Shaheed minar Roehl.jpg|thumb|left|Language movement memorial]] |
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In 1947, the Bengali Muslims had identified themselves with Pakistan's Islamic project, but by the 1970s, the people of East Pakistan had given priority to their Bengali ethnicity over their religious identity, desiring a society in accordance with Western principles such as [[secularism]], democracy and socialism.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 183">{{harvnb|van Schendel|2009|p=183}}</ref> Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm the Pakistani state imposed.<ref name="Haqqani2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&pg=PA19|title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military |year=2010 |publisher=Carnegie Endowment|isbn=978-0-87003-285-1|pages=19–|author=Husain Haqqani}}</ref> |
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East Pakistanis noticed that whenever one of them, such as [[Khawaja Nazimuddin]], [[Muhammad Ali Bogra]], or [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] were elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, they were swiftly deposed by the largely West Pakistani establishment. The military dictatorships of [[Ayub Khan]] and [[Yahya Khan]], both West Pakistanis, only heightened such feelings. |
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Most members of West Pakistan's ruling elite shared a vision of a liberal society, but nevertheless viewed a common faith as an essential mobilising factor behind Pakistan's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan's multiple regional identities into one national identity.<ref name="Haqqani2010"/> West Pakistanis were substantially more supportive than East Pakistanis of an Islamic state, a tendency that persisted after 1971.<ref name="Baxter 1997 70">{{harvnb|Baxter|1997|p=70}}</ref> |
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Finally, when Sheikh Mujib's Awami League won a clear majority in the elections of 1970, the West Pakistan establishment refused to allow Mujib to form a government. This finally convinced the East that they would never get their rightful political rights in a joint Pakistan and that independence was the only way out. |
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Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings gradually outweighed any sense of religious unity. The Bengalis took great pride in their culture and language which, with its [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali script]] and [[Bengali vocabulary|vocabulary]], was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite, who believed that it had assimilated considerable Hindu cultural influences.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 183"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK3d627xESAC&pg=PA24|title=Military Intervention and Secession in South Asia: The Cases of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Kashmir, and Punjab|last=Anne Noronha dos Santos|year=2007|isbn=9780275999490|pages=24|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |access-date=21 August 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214807/https://books.google.com/books?id=gK3d627xESAC&pg=PA24|url-status=live}}</ref> West Pakistanis, in an attempt to "Islamise" the East, wanted the Bengalis to adopt Urdu.<ref name="Willem van Schendel 183"/> The activities of the language movement nurtured a sentiment among Bengalis in favour of discarding Pakistan's communalism in favour of secular politics.<ref>{{harvnb|van Schendel|2009|p=114}}</ref> The Awami League began propagating its secular message through its newspaper to the Bengali readership.<ref>{{harvnb|van Schendel|2009|p=117}}</ref> |
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===Language controversy=== |
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Close ties existed between East Pakistan and [[West Bengal]], one of the Indian states bordering Bangladesh, as both were composed mostly of [[Bengal]]is. West Pakistan viewed East Pakistani links with India unfavourably as relations between India and Pakistan had been very poor since independence. |
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The Awami League's emphasis on secularism differentiated it from the Muslim League.<ref>{{harvnb|Baxter|1997|p=88}}</ref> In 1971, the Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsrfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168|title=Pakistan: From the Rhetoric of Democracy to the Rise of Militancy|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=9781136516412|pages=168|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214843/https://books.google.com/books?id=NsrfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168|url-status=live}}</ref> and secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion-centred Pakistani nationalism.<ref name="RiazRahman2016">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nC9-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Bangladesh |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-30877-5|pages=46–|author1=Ali Riaz|author2=Mohammad Sajjadur Rahman}}</ref> While Pakistan's government strives for an Islamic state, Bangladesh was established secular.<ref name="Baxter 1997 70"/> After the liberation victory, the Awami League attempted to build a secular order<ref name="Baxter2018">{{harvnb|Baxter|1997|p=xiii}}</ref> and the pro-Pakistan Islamist parties were barred from political participation.<ref>{{harvnb|van Schendel|2009|p=175}}</ref> The majority of East Pakistani [[ulama]] had either remained neutral or supported the Pakistani state, since they felt that the break-up of Pakistan would be detrimental for Islam.<ref name="Ahmed1998">{{cite book|author=Ishtiaq Ahmed|title=State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czSm7cmhgA0C&pg=PA223|year=1998|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-85567-578-0|pages=223–|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214856/https://books.google.com/books?id=czSm7cmhgA0C&pg=PA223|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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In [[1948]], [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]] declared in [[Dhaka]] (then usually spelt Dacca in English) that "[[Urdu]], and only Urdu" would be the sole official language for all of Pakistan <ref name="jinnah">Al Helal, Bashir, [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/L_0063.HTM Language Movement], [[Banglapedia]]</ref>. This proved highly controversial, since Urdu was a language that was only spoken in the West by [[Muhajir Urdu|Muhajir]] and in the East by [[Biharis]]. The majority groups in West Pakistan spoke [[Punjabi]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], while [[Bengali language|Bangla]] was spoken by the majority of East Pakistanis. The language controversy eventually reached a point where East Pakistan revolted. Several students and civilians lost their lives in a police crackdown on [[February 21]], [[1952]]. The day is revered in Bangladesh and in [[West Bengal]] as the [[Language Martyrs' Day]]. Later, in memory of the 1952 killings, [[UNESCO]] declared [[February 21]] as the [[International Mother Language Day]]. The deaths led to bitter feelings among East Pakistanis, and they were a major factor in the push for independence. |
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=== Political differences === |
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===Impact of the tropical cyclone=== |
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[[File:Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1950.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], the leader of East Pakistan, and later Bangladesh]] |
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The already tense situation was further aggravated by a [[tropical cyclone]] that struck East Pakistan in 1970. It was a particularly devastating year as the deadliest cyclone on record — the [[1970 Bhola cyclone]] — struck Bangladesh claiming nearly half a million lives. The apathy of West Pakistan leadership and its failure in responding quickly was a further platform for the Awami League, that capitalised on this tragedy. The Pakistan Army failed to do relief work of any significance to alleviate the problem, which further antagonised the already estranged Bengali populace. |
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Although, East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country's population,<ref name="pop">{{cite book |title=The Political System of Pakistan |first=Khalid B. |last=Sayeed |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1967 |page=61}}</ref> political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "[[One Unit]]" scheme, whereby all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing's votes.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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===Political climax=== |
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{{expand}} |
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The political prelude to the war included several factors. Due to the differences between the two wings of the country, a nascent separatist movement developed in East Pakistan. This was curbed with harshness, especially when [[martial law]] was in force between 1958 and 1962 (under General [[Ayub Khan]]) and between [[1969]] and 1972 (under General [[Yahya Khan]]). These military rulers were of West Pakistani origin and continued to favour West Pakistan in terms of economic advantages. |
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After the 1951 assassination of [[Liaquat Ali Khan]], Pakistan's first prime minister, political power began to devolve to the new position of [[President of Pakistan]], which replaced the office of [[Governor-General of Pakistan|Governor General]] when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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The situation reached a climax when in 1970 the [[Awami League]], the largest East Pakistani political party, led by [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 160 of the 162 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 300 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], the leader of the [[Pakistan People's Party]], refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under that other imaginative constitutional innovation, the "one unit scheme." Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman's [[Six Points]]. On [[3 March]] [[1971]], the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dhaka to decide the fate of the country. Talks failed. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nation-wide strike. |
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[[Image:Mujib7March.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Historical Speech of Sheikh Mujibur Rahaman on March 7, 1971]] |
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===Mujib's speech of 7 March=== |
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On [[March 7]] [[1971]], [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] gave a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now called the [[Suhrawardy Udyan]]). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to consider the National Assembly Meeting on [[March 25]]: |
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# The immediate lifting of [[martial law]]. |
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# Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks. |
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# An inquiry into the loss of life. |
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# Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting [[March 25]]. |
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He urged "his people" to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, ''"The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence."'' This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation to fight for their independence. |
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The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment swiftly deposed any East Pakistanis elected leader of Pakistan, such as [[Khawaja Nazimuddin]], [[Mohammad Ali Bogra]], [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], and [[Iskander Mirza]]. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]] (27 October 1958 – 25 March 1969) and [[Yahya Khan]] (25 March 1969 – 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the [[Bangladesh Awami League]], the largest East Pakistani political party, led by [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the [[Pakistan People's Party]], refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan.<ref name="Hassan 2000 p. 393">{{cite book |last=Hassan, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) |first=Mubashir |author-link=Mubashir Hassan |title=The Mirage of Power |place=Oxford University, United Kingdom |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |chapter=§Zulfikar Ali Bhutto: All Power to People! Democracy and Socialism to People! |pages=50–90 |isbn=978-0-19-579300-0}}</ref> |
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===Military preparation in West Pakistan=== |
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General [[Tikka Khan]] was flown in to Dhaka to become Governor of East Bengal. East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in. |
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Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme". Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman's [[Six point movement|Six Points]]. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in [[Dhaka|Dacca]] to decide the fate of the country.<ref name="Hassan 2000 p. 393" /> |
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MV ''Swat,'' a ship of the Pakistani Navy, carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in [[Chittagong]] Port and the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of [[East Pakistan Rifles]] refused to obey commands to fire on Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny of Bengali soldiers. |
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After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a [[Non-cooperation movement (1971)|nationwide strike]]. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, [[Mubashir Hassan]].<ref name="Hassan 2000 p. 393" /> A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto.<ref name="Hassan 2000 p. 393" /> Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as premier and Bhutto as president,<ref name="Hassan 2000 p. 393" /> but Sheikh Mujib later ruled out such a possibility.<ref>{{cite news|script-title=bn:টানা আন্দোলনের চতুর্থ দিন, মৃত্যু ছাপিয়ে ক্ষোভ|url=https://www.prothomalo.com/diary-1971/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81-%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD|newspaper=Prothom Alo|date=5 March 2021|access-date=14 January 2022|archive-date=14 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114105154/https://www.prothomalo.com/diary-1971/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81-%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.<ref name="Hassan 2000 p. 393" /> |
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Between 10 and 13 March, [[Pakistan International Airlines]] cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly "Government Passengers" to Dhaka. These so-called "Government Passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. |
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On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be prime minister) [[7 March Speech of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|delivered a speech]] at the Racecourse Ground (now the [[Suhrawardy Udyan]]). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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===Violence of 25 March=== |
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* The immediate lifting of [[martial law]]. |
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On the night of [[25 March]], the Pakistani Army began a violent effort to suppress the Bengali opposition. Before this began, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from Bangladesh. Bengali members of military services were disarmed. The operation was called ''[[Operation Searchlight]]'' by the Pakistani Army and was carefully devised by several top army generals to "crush" Bengalis. |
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* Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks. |
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* An inquiry into the loss of life. |
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* Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting 25 March. |
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He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence." This speech is considered{{by whom|date=May 2019}} the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General [[Tikka Khan]] was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dhaka, the process of ethnic elimination was also carried out all around Bangladesh. Residential halls of [[University of Dhaka]] were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall — the Jagannath Hall — was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denies any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamood-ur-Rehman commission in Pakistan states that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dhaka University are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Prof. Nur Ullah of the [[EPUET|East Pakistan Engineering University]], whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories. |
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Between 10 and 13 March, [[Pakistan International Airlines]] cancelled all its international routes to urgently fly "government passengers" to Dacca. These "government passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV ''Swat'', a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in [[Chittagong]] Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of [[Border Guards Bangladesh|East Pakistan Rifles]] refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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Hindu areas all over Bangladesh suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dhaka was literally burning, especially the Hindu dominated eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on [[August 2]], [[1971]], "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred." |
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=== Response to the 1970 cyclone === |
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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dhaka to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan. |
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{{Main|1970 Bhola cyclone}} |
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The 1970 Bhola cyclone made [[landfall]] on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local [[Tide|high tide]],<ref name="IMD">{{cite web|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cd024_pdf/005ED281.pdf#page=10|title=Annual Summary – Storms & Depressions|work=India Weather Review 1970|author=India Meteorological Department|author-link=India Meteorological Department|year=1970|access-date=15 April 2007|format=PDF|pages=10–11|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006111905/https://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cd024_pdf/005ED281.pdf#page=10|url-status=dead}}</ref> killing an estimated 300,000 people. A 2017 [[World Meteorological Organization]] panel considers it the deadliest [[tropical cyclone]] since at least 1873.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerveny |first1=Randall S. |last2=Bessemoulin |first2=Pierre |last3=Burt |first3=Christopher C. |last4=Cooper |first4=Mary Ann |last5=Cunjie |first5=Zhang |last6=Dewan |first6=Ashraf |last7=Finch |first7=Jonathan |last8=Holle |first8=Ronald L. |last9=Kalkstein |first9=Laurence |last10=Kruger |first10=Andries |last11=Lee |first11=Tsz-cheung |last12=Martínez |first12=Rodney |last13=Mohapatra |first13=M. |last14=Pattanaik |first14=D. R. |last15=Peterson |first15=Thomas C. |last16=Sheridan |first16=Scott |last17=Trewin |first17=Blair |last18=Tait |first18=Andrew |last19=Wahab |first19=M. M. Abdel |display-authors=5 |title=WMO Assessment of Weather and Climate Mortality Extremes: Lightning, Tropical Cyclones, Tornadoes, and Hail |journal=Weather, Climate, and Society |date=1 July 2017 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=487–497 |doi=10.1175/WCAS-D-16-0120.1|s2cid=55003021 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11937/53049 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips" and "mistakes" in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.<ref name="NYT-6">{{cite news|title=Yahya Condedes 'Slips' In Relief|first=Sydney|last=Schanberg|author-link=Sydney Schanberg|work=The New York Times|date=22 November 1970}}</ref> |
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A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference". They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage.<ref name="NYT-10">{{cite news |title=East Pakistani Leaders Assail Yahya on Cyclone Relief|agency=Reuters |newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 November 1970}}</ref> On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government's response.<ref name="NYT-13">{{cite news|title=Copter Shortage Balks Cyclone Aid|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 November 1970}}</ref> [[Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani]] addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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===Declaration of independence=== |
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{{verify}} |
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The violence unleased by the Pakistani forces on March 25, 1971, proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read: |
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: ''Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dhaka. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between EPR and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May God aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla.'' |
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: ''Sheikh Mujibur Rahman'' |
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: ''25 March 1971'' |
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::(''Source: "The History of the Liberation Movement in Bangladesh" by J. S. Gupta'') |
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As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a [[general strike]] and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the [[Bangladesh Awami League|Awami League]]. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long-term planning was curtailed.<ref name="NYT-12">{{cite news |last=Durdin |first=Tillman |date=11 March 1971 |title=Pakistanis Crisis Virtually Halts Rehabilitation Work in Cyclone Region |newspaper=The New York Times |page=2}}</ref> This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.<ref name="USAID">{{cite web |url = http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/publications/ofda_cjanalysis_02_21-2005.pdf|access-date=15 April 2007|date=21 February 2005|title=A Critical Juncture Analysis, 1964–2003|last=Olson|first=Richard|publisher=[[USAID]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070414002649/http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/publications/ofda_cjanalysis_02_21-2005.pdf |archive-date= 14 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a wireless message.<ref>Source: ''The Daily Star,'' March 26, 2005.</ref> Mujib was arrested on the night of March 25-26, 1971 at about 1:30 a.m. (as per Radio Pakistan’s news on [[March 29]], [[1971]]). |
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=== Operation Searchlight === |
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A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated to [[Bengali language|Bangla]] by Dr. [[Manjula Anwar]]. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of [[Radio Pakistan]]. They crossed Kalurghat Bridge into an area controlled by an East Bengal Regiment under Major [[Ziaur Rahman]]. Bengali soldiers guarded the station as engineers prepared for transmission. At 19:45 hrs on [[26 March]], [[1971]], Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast another announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur which is as follows. |
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{{Main|Operation Searchlight}} |
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: ''This is Shadhin Bangla Betar Kendro. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that the independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalis to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our Motherland. By the grace of Allah, victory is ours. Joy Bangla.'' |
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[[File:March71.PNG|thumb|The location of Bengali and Pakistani military units during [[Operation Searchlight]], March 1971]] |
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The [[Kalurghat]] Radio Station's transmission capability was limited. The message was picked up by a Japanese ship in [[Bay of Bengal]]. It was then re-transmitted by [[Radio Australia]] and later by the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]. |
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A planned military pacification carried out by the [[Pakistan Army]]—codenamed ''Operation Searchlight''—started on 25 March 1971 to curb the [[Bengali nationalism|Bengali]] independence movement<ref name="epw"/> by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military,<ref>{{harvnb|Salik|1997|pp=63, 228–9}}</ref> within one month. The Pakistani state used [[Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh|anti-Bihari violence]] by Bengalis in early March to justify Operation Searchlight.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D'Costa |first=Bina |author-link=Bina D'Costa |year=2011 |title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=103 |isbn=978-0-415-56566-0}}</ref> |
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[[M A Hannan]], an Awami League leader from [[Chittagong]], is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March, 1971. |
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Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Siddiqui |first=Asif |date=December 1997 |title=From Deterrence and Coercive Diplomacy to War: The 1971 Crisis in South Asia |journal=Journal of International and Area Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=73–92 |jstor=43106996}}</ref> |
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March 26, 1971, is considered the official '''Independence Day of Bangladesh''' and according to all Bangladeshi sources, the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. Certain sources, especially of Indian and Pakistani origin, continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until the following [[16 December]]. |
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The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the [[Bangladesh genocide]]. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, resulting in East Pakistan's secession later that year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures that vary greatly, from 5,000 to 35,000 in Dacca, and 300,000 to 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Bangladesh |title = Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls |website = necrometrics.com |access-date = 11 June 2017 |archive-date = 5 March 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110305175626/http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Bangladesh |url-status = live }}</ref> Independent researchers, including the [[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]], have put forward figures ranging from 125,000 to 505,000.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bergman|first=David|title=Questioning an iconic number|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/questioning-an-iconic-number/article5940833.ece|access-date=28 September 2016|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=24 April 2014|archive-date=28 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228012642/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/questioning-an-iconic-number/article5940833.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> American [[Political science|political scientist]] [[Rudolph Rummel]] puts total deaths at 1.5 million.<ref>{{cite book | last = Rummel | first = Rudolph | author-link = Rudolph Rummel | title = Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900 | chapter = Chapter 8: Statistics of Pakistan's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources | page = 544 | isbn = 978-3-8258-4010-5 | quote = "...They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of its Hindus and drive the rest into India. ... This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright genocide'.| year = 1998| publisher = LIT Verlag Münster }}</ref> The atrocities have been called acts of [[genocide#International law|genocide]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Zunaid Kazi |url = http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html |title=History : The Bangali Genocide, 1971 |publisher=Virtual Bangladesh |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110723203401/http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> |
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==The war== |
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[[Image:Bangladesh War 1971 Movements.png|thumb|right|300px|Illustration showing refugee and troop movements during the war.]] |
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As political events gathered momentum, the stage was set for a clash between the Pakistan Army and the insurgents. Though smaller [[Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party|maoist style paramilitary bands]] started emerging, the [[Mukti Bahini]] were becoming increasingly visible. Headed by Colonel [[Muhammad Ataul Gani Osmani]], a retired Pakistani Army officer, this band was raised as Mujib's action arm and security force before assuming the character of a conventional guerrilla force. After the declaration of independence, the Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers [[Defector|defected]] to the underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the [[Mukti Bahini]] and bolstered their weaponry. They then jointly launched operations against the [[Pakistani Army]] killing many in the process. This setback prompted the Pakistani Army to induct [[Razakar]]s, Al-badr and Al-Shams (who were mostly current leaders of Jamaat-i-Islami) and other Bengalis who did not want Bangladesh to become an independent country. These people were essentially viewed as traitors and with suspicion by local Bengalis, as a vast majority of these recruits were [[Bihar]]i Muslims who had settled during the time of [[Partition of India|partition]]. This helped Pakistan stem the tide somewhat as the [[monsoon]] approached in the months of June and July. |
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According to the ''Asia Times:''<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624014444/http://atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=24 June 2005|newspaper=[[Asia Times]]|title=Indians are bastards anyway|last=Debasish Roy Chowdhury|date=23 June 2005}}</ref> |
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Undeterred by this setback, Mukti Bahini regrouped as they gained in strength and capability. Aided by the Indian government in West Bengal, they were equipped and trained to counter the Pakistan Army. As there was no action during the monsoon, it was seen by the Pakistan military brass as a weakening of the Bangladesh cause. However it was merely the lull before the storm. After sensing the magnitude of the issue, the army was beefed up as troop strength was increased to more than 80,000. This caused a rise in tensions across the border as [[India]] realised the gravity of the situation. The [[Military of India|Indian military]] were preparing for the eventual onslaught with the aid of the separatists and waited for the end of the monsoon season to enable easy passage. The Indians aimed to bypass the villages and towns and instead concentrate on the cities and the highways which ultimately would lead to the capture of [[Dhaka]]. |
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{{blockquote|At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands". Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched ''Operation Searchlight'' to "crush" Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able-bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.}} |
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[[Image:IndianArmour.jpg|frame|left|Indian Army troops in action during the war]] |
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<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:IndianArmour.jpg|left|frame|Indian troops in action.]] --> |
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Pakistan decided to nullify such an attack and on [[December 3]] launched a series of [[Preemptive war#Pre-emptive strike|preemptive air strikes]]. The attack was modelled on the [[Operation Focus]] employed by [[Israel Air Force]] during the [[Six-Day War]]. However the plan failed to achieve the desired success and was seen as an open act of unprovoked aggression against the Indians. Indian prime minister [[Indira Gandhi]] then ordered the immediate mobilisation of troops and launched the full scale invasion. This marked the official start of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|India-Pak war]] with fighting commencing in West Pakistan. The Indian Army, far superior in numbers and equipment to that of Pakistan, executed a three-pronged [[pincer movement]] on Dhaka launched from the Indian states of [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], and [[Tripura]]. In all these places the Mukti Bahini and the local Bengalis played a vital role in aiding the Indian Army. Many soldiers were ferried in the night by the locals across rivers and valuable information on the location and whereabouts of different military strongholds were gleaned. It was backed up by the [[Indian Air Force]] which achieved near total [[air supremacy]] towards the end of the war as the entire East Pakistan airbase with all the flights were destroyed. The [[Indian Navy]], also annihilated the eastern wing of the [[Pakistan Navy]] and blockaded the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The fledgling [[Bangladesh Navy]] (comprising officers and sailors who defected from Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably [[Operation Jackpot]]. |
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Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the [[University of Dhaka|University of Dacca]] were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall—[[Jagannath Hall]]—was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold-blooded killings at the university, but the [[Hamoodur Rahman Commission]] in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the [[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology|East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology]], whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.<ref name="nurullah">{{cite book |last=Malik |first=Amita |author-link=Amita Malik |title=The Year of the Vulture |publisher=Orient Longmans |location=New Delhi |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-8046-8817-8 |pages=79–83}}</ref> |
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Meanwhile, on the ground, nearly 3 [[brigade]]s of Mukti Bahini along with the Indian forces fought in a conventional formation. This was supplemented by guerrilla style attacks on Pakistanis who were facing hostilities on land, air, water in both covert and overt ways. Undeterred, Pakistan tried to fight back and boost the sagging morale by incorporating the [[Special Services Group]] commandos in [[sabotage]] and rescue missions. This however could not stop the [[juggernaut]] of the invading columns whose speed and power were too much to contain for the Pakistani Army. On [[16 December]], within just 12 days, the capital Dhaka fell to the ''Mitro Bahini'' — the allied forces. Lt. Gen. Niazi surrendered to the combined forces headed by its commander Lt. Gen. [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]] by signing the Instrument of Surrender at [[Suhrawardy Udyan|Ramna Racecourse]], 16:31 [[Indian Standard Time]]. Bangladesh became liberated. |
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The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West, when [[Anthony Mascarenhas]], a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' describing the systematic killings by the military. The [[BBC]] wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role", with Indian Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] saying that Mascarenhas' article led her "to prepare the ground for India's armed intervention".<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16207201 |title = Bangladesh war: The article that changed history – Asia |publisher = BBC |date = 16 December 2011 |access-date = 20 July 2018 |archive-date = 8 May 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190508091712/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16207201 |url-status = live }}</ref> |
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===Major Battles and Operations=== |
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====Eastern Theatre==== |
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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) [[Rahimuddin Khan]] to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/651231/Agha-Mohammad-Yahya-Khan |title = Encyclopædia Britannica Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604051235/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/651231/Agha-Mohammad-Yahya-Khan |archive-date= 4 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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* [[Clash over Boyra]] |
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* [[Battle of Garibpur]] |
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=== Declaration of independence === |
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{{See also|Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence|7 March Speech of Bangabandhu}} |
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The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these incidents, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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{{blockquote|Today, Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla [May Bangladesh be victorious].}} |
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Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25–26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971).{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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[[File:1971 BDLib poster.jpg|thumb|upright|An iconic [[Bengali nationalism|Bengali nationalist]] propaganda poster by [[Quamrul Hassan]] on [[General Yahya Khan]], representing the Pakistani military junta as demons<ref>{{cite news |last=Afreen Mallick |first=Sadya |title='Potua' and freedom's colours |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=119256 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=12 February 2016 |date=25 December 2009 |archive-date=24 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224034828/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=119256 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] |
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A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in [[Chittagong]]. The message was translated into Bengali by Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of [[Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation]], but the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major [[Ziaur Rahman]] was requested to provide security for the station and also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://arts.bdnews24.com/?p=2769 |script-title=bn:সংযোজনস্বাধীনতার ঘোষণা: বেলাল মোহাম্মদের সাক্ষাৎকার |trans-title=Declaration of Independence: Bilal Mohammad interview |work=bdnews24.com |language=bn |access-date=28 January 2014 |archive-date=29 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329134219/http://arts.bdnews24.com/?p=2769 |url-status=live }}</ref> He broadcast the announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman: |
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{{blockquote|This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.<ref name=Gupta>{{cite book |last=Sen Gupta |first=Jyoti |date=1974 |title=History of freedom movement in Bangladesh, 1943–1973: some involvement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DedtAAAAMAAJ |location=Calcutta |publisher=Naya Prokash |pages=325–326 |access-date=18 February 2013}}</ref>}} |
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The [[Kalurghat]] Radio Station's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the [[Bay of Bengal]]. It was then re-transmitted by [[Radio Australia]]<ref name=Gupta /> and later by the BBC. |
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[[M. A. Hannan]], an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/declaration.html |title=History : The Declaration of Independence |website=Virtual Bangladesh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901035519/http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/declaration.html |archive-date=1 September 2014}}</ref> |
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26 March 1971 is considered the official [[Independence Day (Bangladesh)|Independence Day of Bangladesh]], and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=srCLD-PXl-gC&pg=PA143 M1 India, Pakistan, and the United States: Breaking with the Past By Shirin R. Tahir-Kheli] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129164149/https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0876091990&id=srCLD-PXl-gC&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143#PPA37, |date=29 November 2022 }} {{ISBN|0-87609-199-0}}, 1997, Council on Foreign Relations. pp 37</ref> Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until 16 December 1971.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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== Liberation War == |
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{{main|Mukti Bahini|Timeline of the Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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=== March–June === |
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At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged.<ref>Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, pp. 2–3</ref> But when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The [[Mukti Bahini]] became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasingly many Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of [[Razakar (Pakistan)|Razakars]], [[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badrs]] and [[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]] (mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and [[Bihar]]i Muslims who had settled during the time of [[Partition of India|partition]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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On 17 April 1971, a [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh|provisional government]] was formed in [[Meherpur District]] in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as president, [[Syed Nazrul Islam]] as acting president, [[Tajuddin Ahmad]] as prime minister, and General [[M. A. G. Osmani|Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani]] as Commander-in-Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} |
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=== June–September === |
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{{See also|List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War|Military plans of the Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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[[File:Sectors of Bangladesh Liberation War.svg|thumb|[[List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War|The eleven sectors]] during the Bangladesh Liberation War]] |
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[[File:George Harrison - Bangla Desh.png|thumb|An advertisement for former [[The Beatles|Beatle]] [[George Harrison]]'s "[[Bangla Desh (song)|Bangla Desh]]" single, released in July 1971 to raise international awareness and funds for the millions of Bangladeshi refugees]] |
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Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. [[M. A. G. Osmani]] as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col. Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain A. K. Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A. R. Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership about the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned a well trained force of 8,000 guerrillas, operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate eventual conventional combat.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacob|1997|pp=90–91}}</ref> With the Bangladesh government in exile, Osmani favoured a different strategy:<ref>{{harvnb|Jacob|1997|pp=42–44, 90–91}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hasan|2004|pp=45–46}}</ref> |
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* Bengali conventional forces would occupy lodgments inside Bangladesh and the Bangladesh government would request international [[diplomatic recognition]] and intervention. Initially [[Mymensingh]] was picked for this operation, but Osmani later settled on Sylhet. |
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* Sending the maximum number of guerrillas into Bangladesh as soon as possible with the following objectives:<ref>{{harvnb|Islam|1981|pp=227, 235}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Safiullah|1989|pp=161–163}}</ref> |
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** Increasing Pakistani casualties through raids and ambush. |
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** Cripple economic activity by hitting power stations, railway lines, storage depots and communication networks. |
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** Destroy Pakistan Army mobility by blowing up bridges/culverts, fuel depots, trains and river crafts. |
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** The strategic objective was to make the Pakistanis spread their forces inside the province, so attacks could be made on isolated Pakistani detachments. |
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Bangladesh was divided into [[List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War|eleven sectors]] in July,<ref>{{harvnb|Islam|1981|pp=226–231}}</ref> each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to lead guerrilla operations. The Mukti Bahini forces were given two to five weeks of training by the Indian army on guerilla warfare.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dowlah|first=Caf|title=The Bangladesh Liberation War, the Sheikh Mujib Regime, and Contemporary Controversies|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4985-3418-5|location=New York|page=74|language=en}}</ref> Most of their training camps were near the border area and operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was placed under Osmani's command and included the Naval Commandos and C-in-C's special force.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.liberationwarmuseumbd.org/history/#blaf |title = Bangladesh Liberation Armed Force |website = Liberation War Museum, Bangladesh |access-date = 30 October 2015 |archive-date = 6 September 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906143409/http://www.liberationwarmuseumbd.org/history/#blaf |url-status = live }}</ref> Three brigades (eventually 8 battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Raja |first1=Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar |title=O General My General |date=2010 |publisher=Osmany Memorial Trust |isbn=978-984-8866-18-4 |pages=72, 74–75}}</ref> |
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Five infantry battalions were reformed and positioned along the northern and eastern borders of Bangladesh. Three more battalions were raised, and artillery batteries were formed.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacob|1997|p=44}}</ref> During June and July, Mukti Bahini regrouped across the border with Indian aid through [[Operation Jackpot]] and began sending 2,000–5,000 guerrillas across the border,<ref>{{harvnb|Hasan|2004|p=44}}</ref> the so-called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives.<ref>{{harvnb|Hasan|2004|pp=64–65}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Khan|1973|p=125}}</ref> Bengali regular forces also attacked border outposts in [[Mymensingh]], [[Comilla]] and [[Sylhet]], but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near-accurate observation.<ref>{{harvnb|Ali|1992|p=96}}</ref> |
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Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, [[Port of Mongla|Mongla]], [[Narayanganj]] and [[Chandpur District|Chandpur]] on 15 August 1971.<ref name="Untold heroism of Muktibahini Frogmen">{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Mihir K.|title=War in the Indian Ocean|year=1995|publisher=Lancer Publisher & Distributor|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-1-897829-11-0|page=154}}</ref><ref name="On the water front spectacular achievement">{{cite book|last=Robi|first=Mir Mustak Ahmed|title=Chetonai Ekattor|year=2008|publisher=Zonaki Publisher|location=Dhaka|url=http://opac.iub.edu.bd/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=15244&query_desc=%28su%3A{Bangladesh}%29|page=69}}</ref> |
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=== October–December === |
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{{see also|Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971|Pakistan Army order of battle, December 1971|Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan|Operation Jackpot}} |
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{| style="float:right; font-size:80%; border:1px solid #ddd; background:#fefefe; padding:3px; margin:1em;" |
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| |
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<span style="font-size:110%;">'''Major battles'''</span> |
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* [[Battle of Boyra]] |
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* [[Battle of Garibpur]] |
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* [[Battle of Dhalai]] |
* [[Battle of Dhalai]] |
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* [[Battle of Hilli]] |
* [[Battle of Hilli]] |
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* [[Battle of Kushtia]] |
* [[Battle of Kushtia]] |
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|} |
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* [[Operation Jackpot]] |
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Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the [[Battle of Boyra]] are a few examples. 90 out of 370 border outposts fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture [[Aerodrome#Airstrip|airstrips]] at [[Lalmonirhat District|Lalmonirhat]] and [[Shalutikar]].<ref name=ACIG>{{cite web |url=http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_326.shtml |title=India – Pakistan War, 1971; Introduction By Tom Cooper, with Khan Syed Shaiz Ali |publisher=Acig.org |access-date=23 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606195040/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_326.shtml |archive-date=6 June 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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====Western Theatre==== |
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* [[Battle of Longewala]] |
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* [[Battle of Basantar]] |
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* [[Operation Trident (Indo-Pakistani War)|Operation Trident]] |
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* [[Operation Python]] |
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== Indian involvement == |
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==Foreign intervention== |
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{{see also|Indo-Pakistani war of 1971}} |
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===India=== |
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[[File:Bangladesh 1971 Liberation.jpg|thumb|upright 1.2|Illustration showing military units and troop movements during the war]] |
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{{main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971#India's involvement in Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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{{blockquote|text=All unprejudiced persons objectively surveying the grim events in Bangladesh since March 25 have recognised the revolt of 75 million people, a people who were forced to the conclusion that neither their life, nor their liberty, to say nothing of the possibility of the pursuit of happiness, was available to them.|author=[[Indira Gandhi]]|source=Letter to [[Richard Nixon]], 15 December 1971{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}}} |
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[[Image:0147.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Indian Army's T-55 tanks on their way to Dhaka. India's military intervention played a crucial role in turning the tide in favour of the Bangladeshi rebels.]] |
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Due to the ongoing violence, millions of Bangladeshis fled to neighbouring [[India]] creating a huge refugee crisis there. Troubled by the increasing number of Bangladeshi refugees on its soil, India estimated that it would be cheaper to wage a war on Pakistan than to support the millions of Bangladeshi refugees. On [[December 3]] 1971, the then [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Indira Gandhi]], declared war on Pakistan and aligned itself with the Mukti Bahini. India's external intelligence agency, [[R.A.W.]], played a crucial role in providing logistic support to the Mukti Bahini during the initial stages of the war. RAW's operations in then East Pakistan, was the largest covert mission in the history of South Asia. |
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[[File:Indira2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Indira Gandhi]]]] |
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Wary of the growing involvement of India, the [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on India. However, PAF lost several aircraft to Indian anti-aircraft guns during the mission. In retaliation, the [[Indian Air Force]] carried out several sorties againt Pakistan and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. With India winning the air war, Pakistan launched a desperate attack on India's western front hoping to force Indian troops away from East Pakistan. However, the Indians repelled the Pakistani invasion and decisive Indian victory during the [[Battle of Basantar]] and [[Battle of Longewala]] thrashed all Pakistani hopes to win the war. Backed by the [[Indian Air Force]] and the [[Indian Navy|Navy]], the [[Indian Army]] and the [[Mukti Bahini]] won several battles on the eastern front including the famous [[Battle of Hilli]]. On [[December 16]] 1971, the Indian Army entered [[Dhaka]] and more than 93,000 Pakistani soldiers and their abettors surrendered to joint forces (Mitro Bahini) and were taken as [[prisoner of war]] by the Indian Army, the largest surrender since [[World War II]]. |
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Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, India would be economically better off going to war against Pakistan.<ref name="MSN Encarta" /> As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General [[Sam Manekshaw|Manekshaw]] ([[Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee]]) to "Go into East Pakistan".<ref>{{Cite web|title = 1971: Making Bangladesh a reality – I|url = http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/1971-making-bangladesh-a-reality-i/|website = Indian Defence Review|access-date = 21 June 2015|archive-date = 24 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034413/http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/1971-making-bangladesh-a-reality-i/|url-status = live}}</ref> Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India's decision to intervene in Pakistan's civil war.<ref name="MSN Encarta"/> |
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===USA and USSR=== |
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The United States supported Pakistan both politically and materially. U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan. But when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS Enterprise]] to the [[Bay of Bengal]], a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat <ref name="enterprise">Goldschmidt, Brian P., ''Making a U.S.-India Strategic Partnership Work'', Masters Thesis, US Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, December 2001</ref>. Enterprise arrived on station on [[December 11]], [[1971]]. |
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As a result, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the [[Mukti Bahini]].<ref>{{Cite book |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশ ও অনুপ্রেরণার গল্প |publisher=Inspiring Bangladesh |isbn=978-984-35-0351-0 |page=21 |language=bn |trans-title=Bangladesh and Story of Inspiration}}</ref> [[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW]] helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, creating conditions conducive to a full-scale Indian military intervention in early December.<ref name="MSN Encarta">{{cite encyclopaedia |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588350_3/Indo-Pakistani_Wars.html |title=Indo-Pakistani Wars |encyclopaedia=MSN Encarta |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwrHv6ph?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588350_3/Indo-Pakistani_Wars.html |archive-date=1 November 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Yahya and Nixon.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Nixon administration provided support to Pakistan President Yahya Khan during the turmoil.]] |
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Several documents released from the Nixon Presidential Archives <ref name="nixonarchive">Gandhi, Sajit (ed.), [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79]</ref> show the extent of the tilt that the Nixon Administration demonstrated in favor of Pakistan. Among them, the infamous [[Blood telegram]] from the US consulate in Dhaka, East Pakistan, stated the horrors of the systematic mass murders initiated by the Pakistani Military in East Pakistan. <ref name="SelectiveGenocide">Blood, Archer, [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB1.pdf Transcript of Selective Genocide Telex], Department of State, United States</ref>. Notwithstanding this, Nixon, backed by [[Henry Kissinger]], wanted to protect the interests of Pakistan as they were apprehensive of India. Archer Blood was promptly transferred out of Dhaka. As revealed in the newly declassified transcripts released by the US State Department <ref name="statedept">Smith, Louis J. (ed.), Keefer, Edward C. (general ed.), [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/xi/index.htm "Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, South Asia Crisis, 1971"], United States Government Printing Office</ref>, President Nixon was using the Pakistanis to normalize [[Sino-American relations#Rapproachement|relations with China]]. This would have three important effects, ''viz.'', opening rifts between the Soviet Union, China and North Vietnam, opening the potentially huge Chinese market to American business and creating a foreign policy coup in time to win the 1972 Presidential Elections. Since Nixon believed the existence of Pakistan to be critical to the success of his term he went to great lengths to protect his ally. In direct violation of the US Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran <ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971]</ref>. After the war, the U.S. maintained a largely pro-Pakistani position, against world opinion. |
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The [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) launched [[Operation Chengiz Khan|a preemptive strike on Indian Air Force bases]] on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the [[Israeli Air Force]]'s [[Operation Focus]] during the [[Six-Day War]] and intended to neutralise the [[Indian Air Force]] planes on the ground. India saw the strike as an open act of unprovoked aggression, which marked the official start of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistani War]]. In response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries" even though neither government had formally issued a [[declaration of war]].<ref name="time-edge">{{cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155,00.html|title=India and Pakistan: Over the Edge|magazine=Time|date=13 December 1971|access-date=18 May 2020|archive-date=8 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131008221847/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The Soviet Union had sympathized with the Bangladeshis, and supported the Indian Army and Mukti Bahini during the war. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States developed, the USSR would provide all necessary support to India. This was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the [[Indian Ocean]]. |
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[[File:T-55 tanks in the Bangladesh Liberation War.jpg|thumb|upright|Allied Indian [[T-54/55|T-55]] tanks on their way to Dacca]] |
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===China=== |
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After the USA had failed to act decisively in a manner that would not draw world condemnation to itself, it sought to rope the [[People's Republic of China]] into the conflict. The plan was to attack India on two sides with the help of China and thus stopping the attack on West Pakistan. Kissinger's meeting with the Chinese was with this intention. In fact, China was the only permanent member of the [[UN Security Council]] that was supportive of such an attack, and even provided economic and military assistance. But the support was limited to protecting West Pakistan in the face of a threat from India, and not aimed directly at the internal conflict. It was also suspicious that the U.S. did not want to dirty its hands. The Chinese government wanted a strongly worded UN Security Council resolution after which the PRC would help Pakistan. It however did not materialise due to the Soviet veto and China did not intervene in the war. |
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Three Indian [[corps]] were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three [[brigade]]s of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more who were fighting irregularly. That was far superior to the Pakistani army of three [[division (military)|divisions]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969-4,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071103235823/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969-4,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 November 2007 |title=Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born |magazine=Time |date=20 December 1971 |access-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter the guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite book |last=Praval |first=K. C. |year=1987 |title=Indian Army after Independence |publisher=Lancer International |page=441 |isbn=81-7062-014-7}}</ref> Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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===United Nations=== |
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Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war. The Security Council assembled on [[December 4]] to discuss the volatile situation in [[South Asia]]. USSR vetoed the resolution twice. After lengthy discussions on [[December 7]], the General Assembly promptly adopted by a majority resolution calling for an "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops." The United States on [[December 12]] requested that the Security Council be reconvened. However by the time it was reconvened, and proposals were finalised, the war ended, making the measures merely academic. |
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=== Air and naval war === |
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The inaction of the United Nations in face of the East Pakistan crisis was widely criticized. The conflict also exposed the delay in decision making that failed to address the underlying issues in time. |
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The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It [[East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971|achieved]] near-total [[air supremacy]] by the end of the first week, as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No.14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladeshi airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitola, Lalmonirhat and Shamsher Nagar. [[Hawker Sea Hawk|Sea Hawks]] from the carrier {{INS|Vikrant|1961|6}} also struck Chittagong, [[Barisal]] and [[Cox's Bazar]], destroying the eastern wing of the [[Pakistan Navy]] and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent [[Bangladesh Navy]] (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably [[Operation Jackpot]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/submariners-heroism-and-the-first-military-response-france|title=Naval Commandos in Operation Jackpot|work=The Daily Star|date=26 March 2015|access-date=30 March 2015|archive-date=27 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327073557/http://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/submariners-heroism-and-the-first-military-response-france|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2020}} |
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== Surrender and aftermath == |
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==End of the war== |
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{{further|Pakistani Instrument of Surrender}} |
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After Pakistan's surrender late in 1971, people in Bangladesh rejoiced at their liberation. This was followed by a need to get international acceptance for Bangladesh, as only a few countries recognised the new nation. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally. However the United States grudgingly recognized it, and to ensure a smooth transition, in [[1972]] the [[Shimla Agreement]] was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty was a watershed in the history of the South Asian region as it ensured that Bangladesh would get official recognition from Pakistan and its principal allies in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 90,000 Pakistani PoWs in a record five months. As a gesture of goodwill, the nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for [[war crime]]s by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back more than 13,000 sq. km of land that Indian troops had won in West Pakistan during the war, holding on to a few strategic places; most notably [[Kargil]] (which would in turn again be the focal point for [[Kargil War|a war]] between the two nations in [[1999]]). This was done as a measure of ensuring "lasting peace" and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. But some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for more leeway as he felt that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being too harsh in Pakistan. |
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{{See also|Delhi Agreement}} |
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[[File:Pakistani Instrument of Surrender 1971.jpg|thumb|Pakistani Instrument of Surrender]] |
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[[File:1971 Instrument of Surrender.jpg|thumb|Signing of [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender]] by Pakistan's Lt.Gen. [[Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi|A. A. K. Niazi]] and [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]] on behalf of Indian and [[Mukti Bahini|Bangladesh Forces]] in [[Dhaka]] on 16 Dec. 1971]] |
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On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen [[Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi]], [[Chief Martial Law Administrator]] of [[East Pakistan]] and Commander of Pakistan Army forces in East Pakistan signed the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|Instrument of Surrender]]. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided [[International recognition of Bangladesh|diplomatic recognition]] to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces and Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since [[World War II]].<ref name="dailytimes1912005" /><ref name="BBC1971">{{cite news|title=The 1971 war|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1971.stm|access-date=11 October 2011|work=BBC News|archive-date=13 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113173555/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1971.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Reaction in West Pakistan to the war== |
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Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and layman alike. No one had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight and were also very angry at the meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. The myth of the Pakistan Army's might was shattered and the leadership stood exposed. [[Yahya Khan]]'s dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto who took the opportunity to rise to power. [[A. A. K. Niazi|General Niazi]], who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and hatred upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a [[traitor]]. The war also exposed the short coming of the defence strategy that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan". <ref> [http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/aug2004-weekly/nos-15-08-2004/pol1.htm#1 Redefining security imperatives by M Sharif] - Article in [[Jang]] newspaper. </ref>Pakistan also failed to gather international support and were found fighting a lone battle with only the USA providing any external help. This further embittered the Pakistanis who had faced the worst military defeat of an army in decades. |
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Bangladesh sought admission to the UN with most voting in its favour. China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/1972/1972-1-9.htm |title=Situation in the Indian Subcontinent |work=mofa.go.jp |access-date=10 January 2007 |archive-date=20 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420223314/http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/1972/1972-1-9.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition.<ref>[http://www.newint.org/issue332/guess.htm Guess who's coming to dinner] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224195916/http://www.newint.org/issue332/guess.htm |date=24 February 2007}} Naeem Bangali</ref> To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the [[Simla Agreement]] was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani [[Prisoner of war|PoWs]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Ahmad |first=Fayazuddin |date=17 January 2009 |title=Law and Our Rights |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/law/2009/01/03/index.htm |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}}</ref> |
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The debacle immediately prompted an enquiry headed by Justice Hamdoor Rahman. Called the [[Hamoodur Rahman]] Commission, it was initially suppressed by Bhutto as it put the military in poor light. When it was declassified, it showed many failings from the strategic to the tactical levels. It also condemned the atrocities and the crimes committed by the armed forces. It confirmed the rapes and the killings by the Pakistan Army and their local agents (mostly Jamaati-i-Islami followers) athough the figures are far lower than the one quoted by Bangladesh. 200,000 women were raped, according to Bangladesh. Over 3 million people were killed. However, the army’s role in splintering Pakistan after its greatest military debacle was largely ignored by successive Pakistani governments. |
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India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925.<ref name=":4" /> It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.<ref name="dailytimes1912005" /> Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were pardoned by India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/bangladesh%E2%80%99s-genocide-debate;-a-conscientious-research/ |title=Bangladesh's genocide debate; A conscientious research |publisher=EFSAS |access-date=3 August 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926032926/https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/bangladesh%E2%80%99s-genocide-debate;-a-conscientious-research/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The accord also gave back {{convert|13000|km²|0|abbr=on}} of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A109&Pg=6 |title=The Simla Agreement 1972 – Story of Pakistan |website=Story of Pakistan |date=1 June 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614014904/http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A109&Pg=6 |archive-date= 14 June 2011 |access-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> most notably [[Kargil district|Kargil]] (which was in turn the focal point of [[Kargil War|a war]] between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace" and acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. But some in India<ref>{{cite web |title=India's Strategic Blunders in the 1971 War |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-three-indian-blunders-in-the-1971-war/20111212.htm |website=Rediff.com |access-date=3 August 2014 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123073209/http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-three-indian-blunders-in-the-1971-war/20111212.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> felt the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if Pakistanis perceived the accord as overly harsh.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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==Nomenclature justifications== |
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Three names are frequently used to refer to the exact same warfare. |
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=== Reaction in West Pakistan to the war === |
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===Pakistani Civil War=== |
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Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. [[Yahya Khan]]'s dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power.<ref name="Defencejournal">{{cite web |url = http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/oct/yaqub.htm |title=Defencejournal |publisher=Defencejournal |access-date=18 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121018222302/http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/oct/yaqub.htm |archive-date=18 October 2012}}</ref><!--dead link<ref>[http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/aug2004-weekly/nos-15-08-2004/pol1.htm#1 Redefining security imperatives by M Sharif]{{dead link|date=February 2013}}</ref>--><ref name="ghazali.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.ghazali.net/book8/Chapter_5/body_chapter_5.html |title=General Niazi's Failure in High Command |website=Ghazali.net |date=21 August 2000 |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-date=19 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219015252/http://www.ghazali.net/book8/Chapter_5/body_chapter_5.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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This name is mainly used by current day Pakistan Army and by certain unofficial Indian sources. The name describes either the period of [[March 26]], [[1971]] to [[December 16]], [[1971]] or the period of [[March 26]], [[1971]] to [[December 3]], [[1971]]. The main issue arises from the validity of the declaration of independence on 26 March. This is entirely a matter of political technicality. |
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[[Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi|General Niazi]], who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan".<ref name="Defencejournal"/><!--dead link<ref>[http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/aug2004-weekly/nos-15-08-2004/pol1.htm#1 Redefining security imperatives by M Sharif]{{dead link|date=February 2013}}</ref>--><ref name="ghazali.net"/> |
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There is a certain logic used by proponents of this nomenclature. According to them no country accepted Bangladesh's independence declaration and hence the region contemplated continued to be East Pakistan. So, the war was a [[civil war]] in effect. |
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== Atrocities == |
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===[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]=== |
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{{Main|1971 Bangladesh genocide|1971 killing of Bengali intellectuals|Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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This name is used by armies of all three countries to describe the period between [[December 3]], [[1971]] and [[December 16, 1971]]. The Indian Army does not explicitly use the term to describe the war in their (India's) Eastern Front at any point. Instead, India only refers to the war on the Western Front as the Indo-Pakistani War. (Note that [[Indian Parliament]] recognized the People's Republic of Bangladesh as an independent country on the [[6 December]] [[1971]].) There is no verifiable definite claim from the Pakistan Army or Government. Bangladesh clearly uses only the terminology Liberation War of Bangladesh for the war on Bangladeshi territory. |
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[[File:Dead bodies of Bengali intellectuals, 14 December 1971.jpg|thumb|Rayerbazar killing field photographed immediately after the war, showing dead bodies of intellectuals (image courtesy: [[Rashid Talukder]], 1971)]] |
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During the war, there were widespread killings and other atrocities—including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights beginning with [[Operation Searchlight]] on 25 March 1971. Members of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces|Pakistani military]] and supporting paramilitary forces killed an estimated 300,000<ref name="BBC"/> to 3,000,000 people<ref name="MathewWhite">White, Matthew, ''[http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Bangladesh Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305175626/http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Bangladesh |date=5 March 2011 }}''</ref> and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 [[Bangladeshis|Bangladeshi]] women in a systematic campaign of [[genocidal rape]].{{sfn|Sharlach|2000|pp=92–93}}{{sfn|Sajjad|2012|p=225}} Pakistan's religious leaders openly supported the crime by labelling [[Mukti Bahini|Bengali freedom fighters]] "Hindus" and Bengali women "the booty of war".<ref>{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Dina M. |year=1998 |chapter=Taslima Nasreen and Others: The Contest over Gender in Bangladesh |editor-last1=Bodman |editor-first1=Herbert L. |editor-last2=Tohidi |editor-first2=Nayereh Esfahlani |title=Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity Within Unity |publisher=Lynne Rienner |pages=208–209 |isbn=978-1-55587-578-7 |quote=Sometime during the war, a fatwa originating in West Pakistan labeled Bengali freedom fighters 'Hindus' and declared that 'the wealth and women' to be secured by warfare with them could be treated as the booty of war. [Footnote, on p. 225:] S. A. Hossain, "Fatwa in Islam: Bangladesh Perspective," ''Daily Star'' (Dhaka), 28 December 1994, 7.}}</ref> In fact, more than 80 percent of the Bengali people were Muslims at that time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Population |title=Population |website=Banglapedia |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401041939/https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Population |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The proponents of this terminology also question validity of declaration of independence of Bangladesh since there was no foreign government that acknowledged the independence. So, according to them, the war was effectively between Indian Army and Pakistan Army. |
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A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the [[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]] and [[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badr]] forces,<ref>Many of the eyewitness accounts of relations that were picked up by "Al Badr" forces describe them as Bengali men. The only survivor of the Rayerbazar killings describes the captors and killers of Bengali professionals as fellow Bengalis. See 57 Dilawar Hossain, account reproduced in ''Ekattorer Ghatok-dalalera ke Kothay'' (Muktijuddha Chetona Bikash Kendro, Dacca, 1989)</ref> at the instruction of the Pakistani Army.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d512141501115.htm |title=The loss continues to haunt us |last=Khan |first=Md. Asadullah |date=14 December 2005 |type=Editorial |work=The Daily Star |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=5 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305011706/http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d512141501115.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and the Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/19/archives/125-slain-in-dacca-area-believed-elite-of-bengal-125-found-slain.html|title=125 Slain in Dacca Area Believed Elite of Bengal|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=19 December 1971|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=11 June 2017|issn=0362-4331|quote=At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers, were found murdered today in a field outside Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. They were among an estimated 300 Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters.|archive-date=28 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328143516/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50C13F83C5E127A93CBA81789D95F458785F9|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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===Liberation War of Bangladesh=== |
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This terminology is officially used in Bangladesh by all sources and by Indian official sources. The proponents claim that having won 167 out of 169 seats of East Pakistan, Awami League had people's mandate to form a democratic government. This gave Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as the leader of the party the right to declare independence of the country. Since Major Ziaur Rahman claimed independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, a Bangladesh government was in existence as early as 26 March 1971. Hence Bangladesh was in existence. There was also a Bangladesh Army which effectively meant the war was not between India and Pakistan but between Pakistan and Bangladesh backed by India. |
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[[File:Sriti shoud.jpeg|thumb|left|Memorial for freedom fighters]] |
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The terminology is politically preferred by both India and Bangladesh for a few reasons: |
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*It gave India the right to enter the war in support of Bangladesh without breaching United Nations laws that prevent countries from interfering with other countries' internal affairs. |
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*Members of East Pakistan Regiment were able to fight Pakistan Army without being treated as mutineers since they were fighting under command of a Bangladeshi Government. |
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*It eased Indian diplomatic efforts to gain support for the recognition of Bangladesh as a country. |
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Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99aug08/world.htm#7 |title=Mass grave found in Bangladesh |work=The Tribune |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228012627/https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99aug08/world.htm#7 |url-status=live }}</ref> The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the U.S. State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of [[University of Dhaka|Dacca University]] and other civilians.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/|title=The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971|last=Evans|first=Michael|website=nsarchive.gwu.edu|access-date=11 June 2017|archive-date=12 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612151003/http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/|url-status=live}}</ref> Numerous women were tortured, raped, and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are debated. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of [[War children|war babies]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Bengali Wives Raped in War Are Said to Face Ostracism | date = 8 January 1972 | url = http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/19720118_nyt_bengali_wives_raped_in_war_are_said_to_face_ostracism.pdf | work = The New York Times | access-date = 10 November 2011 | archive-date = 21 December 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111221082405/http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/19720118_nyt_bengali_wives_raped_in_war_are_said_to_face_ostracism.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Aubrey | last = Menen | author-link = Aubrey Menen | title = The Rapes of Bangladesh | date = 23 July 1972 | url = http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/19720723_nyt_the_rapes_of_bangladesh.pdf | newspaper = The New York Times | access-date = 10 November 2011 | archive-date = 21 December 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111221082430/http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/19720723_nyt_the_rapes_of_bangladesh.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Anthony | last = Astrachan | title = U.N. Asked to Aid Bengali Abortions | date = 22 March 1972 | url = http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/19720322_wp_un_asked_to_aid_bengali_abortions.pdf | newspaper = The Washington Post | access-date = 10 November 2011 | archive-date = 21 December 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111221082448/http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/19720322_wp_un_asked_to_aid_bengali_abortions.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> |
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==Atrocities== |
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{{main|1971 Bangladesh atrocities}} |
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The Bangladesh liberation war witnessed widespread atrocities committed against the [[Bengal]]i population of East Pakistan, at a level that within Bangladesh, ‘genocide’ is the term that is still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper |
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<ref name="bangladeshobserver">Editorial ''[http://www.bangladeshobserveronline.com/new/2005/12/30/editorial.htm The Jamaat Talks Back]''in The [[Bangladesh Observer]] December 30, 2005</ref> |
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<ref name="Dr. N.Rabbee">Dr. N. Rabbee ''[http://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/12/03/remembrance.htm Remembering a Martyr]'' Star weekend Magazine, The [[Daily Star (Bangladesh)|]] December 16, 2005</ref>. The actual extent of the atrocities committed is not clearly known, and opinions vary, as the next section discusses. However, there is little doubt that numerous civilians were tortured and killed during the war. A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered mostly by the Al-Shams and Al-Badr forces,<ref name="2006-06-18">Many of the eyewitness accounts of relations that were picked up by "Al Badr" forces describe them as Bengali men. The only survivor of the Rayerbazar killings describes the captors and killers of Bengali professionals as fellow Bengalis. See 37 Dilawar Hossain, account reproduced in ‘Ekattorer Ghatok-dalalera ke Kothay’ (Muktijuddha Chetona Bikash Kendro, Dhaka, 1989)</ref> at the instruction of the defeated Pakistani Army<ref name="2005-12-14">Asadullah Khan ''[http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d512141501115.htm The loss continues to haunt us]'' in The [[Daily Star (Bangladesh)|]] [[December 14]], 2005</ref>. There are many mass graves in Bangladesh, and newer ones are always being discovered, such as one in an old well near a mosque in [[Dhaka]] located in the non-Bengali region of the city which was discovered in August 1999<ref> [[Deutsche Presse Agentur|DPA]] report [http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99aug08/world.htm#7 Mass grave found in Bangladesh] in [[The Chandigarh Tribune]] [[August 8]], 1999</ref>. The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dhaka to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dhaka University and other civilians<ref>Sajit Gandhi ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79]'' [[December 16]], [[2002]]</ref>. |
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The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most were captured from Dacca University and private homes.<ref name="time.oct25-1971">{{cite magazine |title=East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877316,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104001659/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877316,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 November 2007 |url-access=subscription |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=25 October 1971 |page=43 |quote=Refugees are still trekking into India ... telling of villages burned, residents shot, and prominent figures carried off and never heard from again. One of the more horrible revelations concerns 563 young Bengali women, some only 18, who have been held captive inside Dacca's dingy military cantonment since the first days of the fighting. Seized from Dacca University and private homes and forced into military brothels, the girls are all three to five months pregnant. The army is reported to have enlisted Bengali gynecologists to abort girls held at military installations. But for those at the Dacca cantonment it is too late for abortion.}}</ref> There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army,<ref name="usconsulate_cable_march31">U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221082405/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf |date=21 December 2011 }}, 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp</ref> but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially [[Biharis]].<ref name="Bihari Refugees">{{cite journal |last=Sen |first=Sumit |year=1999 |title=Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: the Bihari Refugees of South Asia, Part 1 |journal=[[International Journal of Refugee Law]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=625–645 |doi=10.1093/ijrl/11.4.625}}</ref> In June 1971, Bihari representatives said that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis.<ref name="Gerlach2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA148|title=Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World|last=Gerlach|first=Christian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=9781139493512|page=148|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214806/https://books.google.com/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA148|url-status=live}}</ref> R. J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.<ref name=":12">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYBrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA334|title=Death by Government|last=Rummel|first=R. J.|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1997|isbn=9781560009276|page=334|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214903/https://books.google.com/books?id=aYBrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA334|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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===Casualties=== |
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The number of civilians that died in the liberation war of Bangladesh is not known in any reliable accuracy. There has been a great disparity in the casualty figures put forth by Pakistan on one hand (26,000, as reported in the [[Hamoodur Rahman Commission]] |
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<ref>[http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.shtm Hamoodur Rahman Commission], [http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm Chapter 2], Paragraph 33</ref> |
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) and India and Bangladesh on the other hand (From 1972 to 1975 the first post-war [[prime minister]] of Bangladesh, Sheikh [[Mujibur Rahman]], mentioned that 3 million died on a dozen occasions |
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<ref>F. Hossain ''[http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~faisal/Genocide.html Genocide 1971]'' Correspondence with the [[Guinness Book of Records]] on the number of dead</ref>). The international media and reference books in English have also have published figures which vary greatly: 5,000–35,000 in Dhaka, and 200,000–3,000,000 in the country of Bangladesh |
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<ref name=MathewWhite/> |
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<ref>[http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html Virtual Bangladesh : History : The Bangali Genocide, 1971]</ref>. According to the journalist Robert Payne on [[February 22]], [[1971]] [[Yahya Khan]] told a group of generals, "Kill three million of them, and the rest will eat out of our hands"<ref>Pierre Stephen and Robert Payne [[#References|References]] needs a page number</ref>. |
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On 16 December 2002, the [[George Washington University]]'s [[National Security Archive]] published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between U.S. embassy officials and [[United States Information Agency|United States Information Service]] centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C.<ref name=":2" /> These documents show that U.S. officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide"<ref name="SelectiveGenocide">U.S. Consulate in Dacca (27 March 1971), ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB1.pdf Selective genocide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612052659/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ |date=12 June 2009 }}'', Cable (PDF)</ref> and "genocide" (see [[Archer Blood#The Blood telegram|The Blood Telegram]]) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. ''[[Genocide]]'' is the term still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh,<ref name="bangladeshobserver">{{cite news |title=The Jamaat Talks Back |url=http://www.bangladeshobserveronline.com/new/2005/12/30/editorial.htm |newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer]] |type=Editorial |date=30 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070123033307/http://www.bangladeshobserveronline.com/new/2005/12/30/editorial.htm |archive-date=23 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/12/03/remembrance.htm |title=Remembering a Martyr |magazine=Star Weekend Magazine |publisher=The Daily Star |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=27 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027095320/http://archive.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/12/03/remembrance.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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The historian branch of the [[United States State Department]] held a two-day conference in late June 2005 on U.S. policy in [[South Asia]] between 1961 and 1972. The State Department invited scholars from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to express their views on documents recently declassified by the State Department. According to ''Dawn'', a Pakistani Newspaper, Bangladeshi speakers at the conference stated that the official Bangladeshi figure of civilian deaths was close to 300,000, which was wrongly translated from Bengali into English as three million. Ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury acknowledged that Bangladesh alone cannot correct this mistake and suggested Pakistan and Bangladesh should form a joint commission to investigate the 1971 disaster and prepare a report. "Almost all scholars agreed that the real figure was somewhere between 26,000, as reported by the Hamoodur Rahman Commission, and not three million, the official figure put forward by Bangladesh and India." |
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<ref name="USSD2005-06">U.S Department of State [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/46059.htm South Asia in Crisis: United States Policy, 1961-1972 June 28-29, 2005, Loy Henderson Auditorium, Tentative Program]</ref><ref name="dawn">Anwar Iqbal [http://www.dawn.com/2005/07/07/nat3.htm Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers], The Dawn, July 7, 2005</ref> |
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== International reactions == |
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In 1997 [[R. J. Rummel]] published a book which is available on the web called ''Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900'', In Chapter 8 called ''Statistics Of Pakistan's Democide - Estimates, Calculations, And Sources'' he states: |
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[[File:André Malraux, Pic, 22.jpg|thumb|Former French minister [[André Malraux]] vowed to fight alongside the Mukti Bahini in the Liberation War.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/28/bernard-henri-levy-andre-malraux-s-bangladesh-before-the-radicals.html|title=Bernard-Henri Levy: Andre Malraux's Bangladesh, Before the Radicals|newspaper=The Daily Beast|date=28 April 2014|last1=Lévy|first1=Bernard-Henri|access-date=2 April 2015|archive-date=7 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407100546/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/28/bernard-henri-levy-andre-malraux-s-bangladesh-before-the-radicals.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theindependentbd.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=212838:andre-malraux-a-true-friend-of-bangladesh&catid=182:city-life&Itemid=220 |title=André Malraux: A true friend of Bangladesh |work=The Independent |location=Dhaka |date=25 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411040048/http://www.theindependentbd.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=212838:andre-malraux-a-true-friend-of-bangladesh&catid=182:city-life&Itemid=220 |archive-date=11 April 2015}}</ref>]] |
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:In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) [General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan and his top generals] also planned to murder its Bengali intellectual, cultural, and political elite. They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of its Hindus and drive the rest into India. And they planned to destroy its economic base to insure that it would be subordinate to West Pakistan for at least a generation to come. This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright [[genocide]].<ref name="Rummel">Rummel, Rudolph J., [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP8.HTM "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900"], ISBN 3825840107, Chapter 8, table 8.1 </ref> |
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Rummel goes on to collate the what considers the most credible estimates published by others into what he calls [[democide]]. He writes that "Consolidating both ranges, I give a final estimate of Pakistan's democide to be 300,000 to 3,000,000, or a prudent 1,500,000." |
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Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]] to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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===Atrocities on women and minorities=== |
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Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war. Again, exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. Bangladeshi sources cite a figure of 200,000 women raped, giving birth to thousands of war-babies. Some other sources, for example [[Susan Brownmiller]], refer to an even higher number of over 400,000. Pakistani sources claim the number is much lower, though having not completely denied rape incidents. |
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<ref>Debasish Roy Chowdhury ''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.html 'Indians are bastards anyway']'' in [[Asia Times]] [[June 23]], 2005 |
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"''In Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape, Susan Brownmiller likens it to the Japanese rapes in Nanjing and German rapes in Russia during World War II. "... 200,000, 300,000 or possibly 400,000 women (three sets of statistics have been variously quoted) were raped."''" |
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</ref> |
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<ref name="susanbrownmiller">Brownmiller, Susan, "Against Our Will : Men, Women, and Rape" ISBN 0449908208, page 81</ref> |
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<ref>[http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.shtm Hamoodur Rahman Commission], [http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm Chapter 2], Paragraphs 32,34</ref> |
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Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world's context of the war and to justify military action by India.<ref name="recog-story">{{cite web|url=http://www.bdsdf.org/forum/index.php?showtopic=3072 |title=The Recognition Story |publisher=Bangladesh Strategic and Development Forum |access-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725050939/http://www.bdsdf.org/forum/index.php?showtopic=3072 |archive-date=25 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Also, following Pakistan's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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Apart from Brownmiller's, another work that has included direct experiences from the women raped is ''Ami Virangana Bolchhi'' ("I, the heroine, speak") by [[Nilima Ibrahim]]. The work includes in its name from the word ''Virangana'' (Heroine), given by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman after the war, to the raped and tortured women during the war. This was a conscious effort to alleviate any social stigma the women might face in the society. How successful this effort was is doubtful, though. |
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=== United Nations === |
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The minorities of Bangladesh, especially the [[Hindus]], were specific targets of the Pakistan army <ref name="usconsulate_cable_march31">U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere], March 31, 1971, Confidential, 3 pp</ref>. There was widespread killing of Hindu males, and rapes of women. More than 60% of the Bengali refugees that had fled to India were Hindus <ref name="usstatedept_south_asia_crisis">US State Department, "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976", Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971", Page 165</ref>. It is not exactly known what percentage of the people killed by the [[Pakistan]] army were Hindus, but it is safe to say it was disproportionately high<ref name="kennedy">Kennedy, Senator Edward, "Crisis in South Asia - A report to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their Settlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee", November 1, 1971, U.S. Govt. Press, page 66. Sen. Kennedy wrote, "Field reports to the U.S. Government, countless eye-witness journalistic accounts, reports of International agencies such as World Bank and additional information available to the subcommittee document the reign of terror which grips East Bengal (East Pakistan). Hardest hit have been members of the hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked 'H'. All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad."</ref>. This widespread violence against Hindus was motivated by a policy to purge East Pakistan of what was seen as Hindu and Indian influences. The West Pakistani rulers identified the Bengali culture with Hindu and Indian culture, and thought that the eradication of Hindus would remove such influences from the majority Muslims in East Pakistan |
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<ref name="sundaytimes6_13_71">The Sunday Times, London, June 13, 1971, ""The Government's policy for East Bengal was spelled out to me in the Eastern Command headquarters at Dacca. It has three elements: 1. The Bengalis have proved themselves unreliable and must be ruled by West Pakistanis; 2. The Bengalis will have to be re-educated along proper Islamic lines. The - Islamization of the masses - this is the official jargon - is intended to eliminate secessionist tendencies and provide a strong religious bond with West Pakistan; 3. When the Hindus have been eliminated by death and fight, their property will be used as a golden carrot to win over the under privileged Muslim middle-class. This will provide the base for erecting administrative and political structures in the future."</ref>. |
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Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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At the historian branch of the United States State Department two-day conference in late June 2005 on U.S. policy in [[South Asia]] between 1961 and 1972<ref name="USSD2005-06" />, [[Sarmila Bose]] (a [[Harvard]]-educated [[India]]n academic related to the Indian rebel [[Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose]]), presented a paper suggesting that the casualties and rape allegations in the war have been greatly exaggerated for political purposes<ref>Sarmila Bose ''[http://www.epw.org.in/showArticles.php?root=2005&leaf=10&filename=9223&filetype=html Anatomy of violence: An Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971]'', later published in the [[Indian Journal, Economic and Politcal Weekly]], issue [[October 8]], 2005</ref>. This work has been critisised in Bangladesh and her research methods have been attacked as shoddy and biased<ref>[http://drishtipat.org/sarmila/sarmila.htm In this website, we tried to collate information concerning this paper including Sarmila Bose’s original paper, relevant Bangla articles and rebuttals of Bose’s paper] on the [[Drishtipat]] web site. Drishtipatis a non-profit, non-political expatriate Bangladeshi organization</ref>. |
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After India entered the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a [[ceasefire]]. The [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops". While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.<ref name="time-edge" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Zulfiqar_Ali_Bhutto%27s_farewell_speech_to_the_United_Nations_Security_Council|title=Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's farewell speech to the United Nations Security Council|last=Bhutto|first=Zulfiqar Ali|access-date=11 June 2017|archive-date=28 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428162858/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Zulfiqar_Ali_Bhutto%27s_farewell_speech_to_the_United_Nations_Security_Council|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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===Killing of intellectuals=== |
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During the war, the Pakistan Army and its local collaborators carried out a systematic execution of the leading Bengali intellectuals. A number of university professors from Dhaka University were killed during the first few days of the war <ref name="SelectiveGenocide"/><ref name="roy02homage">Ajoy Roy, [http://www.mukto-mona.com/Articles/ajoy/martyr_intellectual.htm "Homage to my martyr colleagues"], 2002</ref>. However, the most extreme cases of targeted killing of intellectuals took place during the last few days of the war. Allegedly, the leaders of Jamaat-e-Islami and its paramilitary arm, the Al-Badr and Al-Shams forces created a list of doctors, teachers, poets, and scholars <ref name="askari05star">Dr. Rashid Askari, [http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d51214020321.htm "Our martyerd intellectuals"], editorial, the Daily Star, December 14, 2005</ref>. Some sources also allege the role of the [[CIA]] in devising the plan <ref name="hasan01onneshon">Dr. M.A. Hasan, ''Juddhaporadh, Gonohatya o bicharer anneshan'', War Crimes Fact Finding Committee and Genocide archive & Human Studies Centre, Dhaka, 2001</ref>. On [[December 14]], [[1971]], only two days before surrendering to the Indian military and the Mukhti Bahini forces, the Pakistani army – with the assistance of local islamist leaders and groups that chose to ally themselves with the Pakistani military, most notably the Al Badr and Al Shams – systematicly executed well over 200 of East Pakistan's intellectuals and scholars. Professors, journalists, doctors, artists, engineers, writers were rounded up in Dhaka, blindfolded, taken to Rajarbag in the middle section of the city, and executed en masse. In memory of this event, December 14 is mourned in Bangladesh as ''Buddhijibi Hotta Dibosh'' ("Day of Martyred Intellectuals") |
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<ref name="2005-12-14"/> |
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<ref>Shahiduzzaman ''[http://www.newagebd.com/2005/dec/15/murdered/murdered.html No count of the nation’s intellectual loss]'' The New Age, December 15, 2005</ref> |
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<ref>[http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/K_0261.htm Killing of Intellectuals] Asiatic Society of Bangladesh</ref>. |
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On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the ceasefire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.<ref name=":3" /> |
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===Alleged genocide=== |
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After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the [[Genocide Convention]], it came into force as international law on [[12 January]] [[1951]]. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] were parties to the treaty, and it was not until after the last of the last five permanent members ratified the treaty in 1988, and the [[Cold War]] came to an end, that the international law on the crime of genocide began to be enforced. As such, the allegation that a genocide took place during the during the Bangladesh War of 1971 were never investigated by an international tribunal set up under the auspices of the United Nations, so the alleged genocided is not recognised as a genocide under international law. However, the word ‘genocide’ was and is used frequently amongst observers and scholars of the events that transpired during the 1971 war. Within Bangladesh, ‘genocide’ is the term used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper.<ref name="bangladeshobserver"/><ref name="Dr. N.Rabbee"/> |
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Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.<ref name="recog-story" /> |
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On [[December 16]], [[2002]], the George Washington University’s National Security Archives published a collection of declassified documents, mostly consisting of communications between US officials working in embassies and USIS centers in Dhaka and in India, and officials in Washington DC<ref name="nixonarchive"/>. These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms ‘selective genocide’<ref name="SelectiveGenocide"/> and ‘genocide’ ([[Blood telegram]]) to describe events they had knowledge of at the time. They also show that President Nixon, advised by Henry Kissinger, decided to downplay this secret internal advise, because he wanted to protect the interests of Pakistan as he was apprehensive of India's friendship with the [[USSR]], and he was seeking a closer relationship with China who supported Pakistan<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB21.pdf Memorandam for the Record](PDF) August 11 1971</ref>. |
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===Bhutan=== |
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In his book “The Trials of Henry Kissinger”, Christopher Hitchens elaborates on what he saw as the efforts of Henry Kissinger to subvert the aspirations of independence on the part of the Bengalis. In elaborating, Hitchens not only claims that the term ‘genocide’ is appropriate to describe the results of the struggle, but also points to the efforts of Henry Kissinger in undermining others who condemned the then ongoing atrocities as being a genocide. <ref>Christopher Hitchens [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Kissinger/Bangladesh_TOHK.html The Trials of Henry Kissinger] [[References]] Pages 44,50</ref> |
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As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of [[Bhutan]] became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/08/bhutan-recognised-bangladesh-first|title=Bhutan recognised Bangladesh first|work=Dhaka Tribune|date=8 December 2014|access-date=14 December 2014|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108132617/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/08/bhutan-recognised-bangladesh-first|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], the first [[President of Bangladesh]], visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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== |
=== US and USSR === |
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[[File:Ted Kennedy, 1967 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Ted Kennedy|Senator Ted Kennedy]] led US congressional support for Bangladeshi independence.]] |
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{{main|Recipients of military awards,1971,Bangladesh}} |
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Four categories of gallantry awards were created after the war in Bangladesh to honour those who had demonstrated outstanding bravery in the war. These were: [[Bir Sreshtho|Bir Sreshţho]], [[Bir Uttom]], [[Bir Bikrom|Bir Bikrôm]], and [[Bir Protik]]. Seven soldiers were awarded the ultimate award for gallantry, Bir Sreshţho. All seven had given their lives in the war. They were: |
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* [[Ruhul Amin|Amin, Ruhul]] |
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* [[Mohiuddin Jahangir|Jahangir, Mohiuddin]] ([[Captain]]) |
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* [[Mostafa Kamal|Kamal, Mostafa]] ([[Sepoy]]) |
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* [[Hamidur Rahman|Rahman, Hamidur]] ([[Sepoy]]) |
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* [[Matiur Rahman (military pilot)|Rahman, Matiur]] ([[Flight Lieutenant]]) |
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* [[Munshi Abdur Rouf|Rouf, Munshi Abdur]] ([[Naik]]) |
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* [[Nur Mohammad Sheikh|Sheikh, Nur Mohammad]] ([[Lance Naik]]) |
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The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan in terms of diplomacy and military threats.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jarrod Hayes |year=2012 |title=Securitization, social identity, and democratic security: Nixon, India, and the ties that bind |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241754960 |journal=International Organization |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=63–93 |doi=10.1017/S0020818311000324 |jstor=41428946|s2cid=145504278 }}</ref> US President [[Richard Nixon]] and his National Security Advisor [[Henry Kissinger]] feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People's Republic of China, with which Nixon had been negotiating a ''[[China–United States relations#Rapprochement|rapprochement]]'' and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of [[West Pakistan]] would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China.<ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823000531/http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm |date=23 August 2009 }}</ref><ref name="thedailystar.net">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/perspective/the-triumvirate-the-diplomat-the-journalist-and-the-artist-1330978|title=The triumvirate of the Diplomat, the Journalist and the Artist|date=17 December 2016|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113110423/http://www.thedailystar.net/perspective/the-triumvirate-the-diplomat-the-journalist-and-the-artist-1330978|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Timeline== |
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{{main|Timeline of Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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To demonstrate to China the ''bona fides'' of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran,<ref name="Shalom"/> while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the [[Archer Blood#The Blood telegram|Blood telegram]].<ref name="thedailystar.net"/> |
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==The conflict as depicted in arts and media== |
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[[Image:Dacca02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bangladesh's national monument, [[Jatiyo Smriti Soudho]], located in Savar, [[Dhaka]], is a tribute to the martyrs of the Liberation War]] |
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Naturally, the liberation war on 1971 has been a major source of inspiration for a wide number of artistic works in Bangladesh, including some by international artists as well. The following list includes some, if not all, of the major works about the war: |
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*Films |
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** ''Stop Genocide'' – [[documentary film|documentary]] by [[Zahir Raihan]], ([[1971]]) |
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** ''Nine Months to Freedom: The Story of Bangladesh'' – documentary by S. Sukhdev ([[1972]]) |
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** ''Shei Rater Kotha Bolte Eshechi'' ("Tale of the Darkest Night") – documentary by Kawsar Chowdhury (2001). |
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** ''Muktir Gaan, Muktir Katha'' and ''Narir Katha'' – three different [[Bangla]] documentaries by [[Tareque Masud|Tareque]] and Catherine Masud |
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** ''Border'' – a [[Bollywood]] movie on the India-Pakistan side of the war. |
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** ''Aguner Parashmani'' – feature film by [[Humayun Ahmed]] |
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** ''Shyamal Chhaya'' – feature film by Humayun Ahmed |
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** ''Ekattorer Jishu'' – feature film by Nasiruddin Yusuf |
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** ''Joy Jatra'' – feature film by Tauqir Ahmed |
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*Bangla literature and memoirs |
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** ''Ami Virangana Balchhi'' – memoir by [[Nilima Ibrahim]] |
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** ''Ekattorer Dinguli'' – memoir by [[Jahanara Imam]] |
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** ''Ma'' – novel by [[Anisul Haque]] |
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** ''Jochhna o Janani'r Galpo'' – novel by Humayun Ahmed |
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** ''Ekatture Uttar Ronangaon'' - Factual Accounts by [[M. Hamidullah Khan]] |
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*International arts and media |
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** ''[[Concert for Bangladesh]]'', New York, 1971 |
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** [http://www.everyday-beat.org/ginsberg/poems/jessore.txt ''September on Jessore Road''] – a poem by [[Allen Ginsberg]] |
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** [[Joan Baez]]: ''Song for Bangladesh'' (Song) [http://www.joanbaez.com/Lyrics/bangladesh.html Lyrics] |
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** [[George Harrison]]: ''Bangla Desh'' (Song) |
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*Sculptures and monuments |
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** [[Jatiyo Smriti Soudho]] (National Monument for Remembrance) in [[Savar]], [[Dhaka]] |
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** [[Aparajeyo Bangla]] – sculpture in [[Dhaka University]] |
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** Shabash Bangladesh – sculpture in [[Rajshahi University]] |
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** Shoparjito Shadhinota – sculpture in Dhaka University |
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*Museums |
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** Liberation War Museum, Dhaka |
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** Shahid Smriti Sangrohoshala (Martyr Memorial Museum), [[Rajshahi]] |
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[[File:Yahya and Nixon.jpg|thumb|The [[Nixon administration]] was widely criticised for its close ties with the military junta led by General [[Yahya Khan]]. American diplomats in East Pakistan expressed profound dissent in the [[Blood Telegram]].]] |
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==See also== |
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{{BDesh}} |
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Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']] to the [[Bay of Bengal]],<ref>{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Scott |title=Naval 'Show of Force' By Nixon Meant as Blunt Warning to India |work=Bangor Daily News |date=21 December 1971 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154916/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461 |url-status=live }}</ref> a move the Indians deemed a nuclear threat. ''Enterprise'' arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the [[Soviet Navy]] dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from [[Vladivostok]]; they trailed US [[Task Force 74]] in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.<ref name="White2011">{{cite book|author=Matthew White|title=Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5w9qmd1UeMC&q=pakistani+dictator+yahya+khan&pg=PR45|year=2011|publisher=Canongate Books|isbn=978-0-85786-125-2|page=45|access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214807/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5w9qmd1UeMC&q=pakistani+dictator+yahya+khan&pg=PR45|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/books/review/the-blood-telegram-by-gary-j-bass.html|title=Collateral Damage:'The Blood Telegram,' by Gary J. Bass|author=Dexter Filkins|date=27 September 2013|work=The New York Times|access-date=16 December 2015|archive-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611054151/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/books/review/the-blood-telegram-by-gary-j-bass.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Footnotes== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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<references /> |
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</div> |
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The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the [[Mukti Bahini]] during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals—the United States and the People's Republic of China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the U.S. or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the [[Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation|Indo-Soviet friendship treaty]] signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS ''Enterprise'' in the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1161217/jsp/frontpage/story_125276.jsp|title=That same fleet but new face|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063248/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1161217/jsp/frontpage/story_125276.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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==References== |
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* Pierre Stephen and Robert Payne: ''Massacre'', Macmillan, New York, (1973). ISBN 0025952404 |
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* Christopher Hitchens “The Trials of Henry Kissinger”, Verso (2001). ISBN 1859846319 |
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At the end of the war, the [[Warsaw Pact]] countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972.<ref>{{cite news |title=USSR, Czechoslovakia Recognize Bangladesh |agency=Associated Press |location=Sumter, South Carolina, US |date=25 January 1972 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=0dIoAAAAIBAJ&pg=2219,2272476 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154918/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=0dIoAAAAIBAJ&pg=2219,2272476 |url-status=live }}</ref> The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nixon Hopes for Subcontinent Peace |agency=Associated Press |location=Spartanburg, South Carolina, US |date=9 April 1972 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5TMsAAAAIBAJ&pg=3505,1398456 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154918/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5TMsAAAAIBAJ&pg=3505,1398456 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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==Further reading== |
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* ''Documents of the war of Independence'', vol 01-16, Ministry of Information, Govt. of Bangladesh. |
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=== China === |
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* Ayoob, Mohammed and [[K. Subrahmanyam|Subrahmanyam, K.,]] ''The Liberation War'', S. Chand and Co. pvt Ltd. New Delhi, 1972. |
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As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled [[Kashmir]]. On 10 December 1971, Nixon instructed Kissinger to ask the Chinese to move some forces toward the frontier with India. Nixon said, "Threaten to move forces or move them, Henry, that's what they must do now". Kissinger met with [[Huang Hua]], China's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, later that evening.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/xi/45650.htm|title=Foreign Relations, 1969–1976, Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971|access-date=19 May 2020|website=[[US Department of State]]|archive-date=11 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311235955/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/xi/45650.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=101–105|author=Srinath Raghavan|date = 12 November 2013|isbn = 9780674731295}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=East Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1IRmDwAAQBAJ|pages=52–53|author=Noah Berlatsky|date=26 October 2012|publisher=Greenhaven Publishing|isbn=9780737762563|access-date=18 May 2020|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214855/https://books.google.com/books?id=1IRmDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The Chinese did not respond to this encouragement, because unlike the [[Sino-Indian War|1962 Sino-Indian War]], when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality.<ref name="time-edge" /> China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed its application<ref name="oxnard">{{cite news |title=China Recognizes Bangladesh |agency=Associated Press |location=Oxnard, California, US |date=1 September 1975 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rnVKAAAAIBAJ&pg=4237,20391 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028213206/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rnVKAAAAIBAJ&pg=4237,20391 |url-status=live }}</ref> because two U.N. resolutions about the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented.<ref>{{cite news |title=China Veto Downs Bangladesh UN Entry |agency=United Press International |date=26 August 1972 |location=Montreal, Quebec, Canada |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=GQsyAAAAIBAJ&pg=4712,6055847 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414025755/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=GQsyAAAAIBAJ&pg=4712,6055847 |url-status=live }}</ref> China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.<ref name="recog-story" /><ref name="oxnard" /> |
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=== Sri Lanka === |
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Sri Lanka (then called [[Dominion of Ceylon|Ceylon]]) saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for itself and feared India might use its enhanced power against it in the future.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83S00854R000200130001-0.pdf |title=India and Its Neighbors: Cooperation of Confrontation? |author=Office of Near East-South Asia Analysis |author-link=Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |date=19 January 2011 |website=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=12 January 2021 |quote="Nepal and Sri Lanka saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for themselves and feared that India might use its enhanced power against them at some future date." |quote-page=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115114828/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83S00854R000200130001-0.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|7}} Despite the left-wing government of [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]] following a neutral non-aligned foreign policy, Sri Lanka decided to help Pakistan in the war.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=13217 |title=The Foreign Policy of Sirimavo Bandaranaike |work=The Island |date=11 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213125733/http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=13217 |archive-date=13 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.lk/brief-overview-of-sri-lankas-foreign-relations-to-post-independence/ |title=You are being redirected... |website=mfa.gov.lk |access-date=9 April 2019 |archive-date=8 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408011417/https://www.mfa.gov.lk/brief-overview-of-sri-lankas-foreign-relations-to-post-independence/ |url-status=live}}</ref> As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory, they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at [[Bandaranaike Airport]] in Sri Lanka where they were refuelled before flying to [[East Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite news |date=11 June 2011 |title=Pak thanks Lanka for help in 1971 war |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/pak-thanks-lanka-for-help-in-1971-war/story-UpZWXd0fFX5eDPac0KMIYL.html |newspaper=Hindustan Times |access-date=14 February 2019 |archive-date=21 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321063210/https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/pak-thanks-lanka-for-help-in-1971-war/story-UpZWXd0fFX5eDPac0KMIYL.html |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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=== Arab world === |
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As many [[Arab countries]] were allied with both the United States and Pakistan, it was easy for Kissinger to encourage them to participate. He sent letters to both, the [[Hussein of Jordan|King of Jordan]] and the [[Shah Faisal|King of Saudi Arabia]]. Nixon gave permission for Jordan to send ten [[F-104]]s and promised to provide replacements.<ref name="Shalom" /> According to author Martin Bowman, "Libyan [[Northrop F-5|F-5s]] were reportedly deployed to [[Sargodha Airbase|Sargodha AFB]], perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia."<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman">{{cite book |last1=Bowman |first1=Martin |year=2016 |title=Cold War Jet Combat: Air-to-Air Jet Fighter Operations 1950–1972 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QleqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |publisher=Pen and Sword |page=112 |isbn=978-1-4738-7463-3 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214845/https://books.google.com/books?id=QleqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi#Libyan Arab Republic (1969–1977)|Libyan]] dictator [[Gaddafi]] also personally directed a strongly worded letter to Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi accusing her of aggression against Pakistan, which endeared him to all Pakistanis.<ref name="THe News International">{{cite news |last=Nazar Abbas |title=Gaddafi is gone, long live Libya |url=https://www.thenews.com/Todays-News-2-64753-Gaddafi-is-gone-long-live-Libya |newspaper=The News International |date=26 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809005813/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-2-64753-Gaddafi-is-gone-long-live-Libya |archive-date=9 August 2013 |access-date=9 August 2013}}</ref> In addition to these three countries, an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with [[Mirage III]]s.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} |
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== In popular culture == |
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{{Main|Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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== See also == |
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{{Portal|Bangladesh}} |
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* [[Bangladesh Liberation War and Islam]] |
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* [[Awards and decorations of the Bangladesh Liberation War]] |
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* [[Liberation War Museum]] |
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* [[Movement demanding trial of war criminals (Bangladesh)]] |
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* [[NAP-Communist Party-Students Union Special Guerrilla Forces]] |
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* [[Kader Bahini]] |
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* [[Irregular military]] |
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== Notes == |
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{{NoteFoot}} |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist}} |
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=== Sources === |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{Country study}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Ali |first=Rao Farman |author-link=Rao Farman Ali |title=How Pakistan Got Divided |year=1992 |publisher=Jang Publishers |isbn=984-05-0157-7}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Baxter |first=Craig |author-link=Craig Baxter |year=1997 |title=Bangladesh: From A Nation To A State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJdNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-813-33632-9 |access-date=6 December 2018 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214844/https://books.google.com/books?id=FJdNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Bose |first=Sarmila |date=8 October 2005 |title=Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971 |url=http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/profile_materials/sbose-anatomy_of_violence-epw_v_40_no_41_2005.pdf |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=40 |issue=41 |access-date=7 March 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228012627/https://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/profile_materials/sbose-anatomy_of_violence-epw_v_40_no_41_2005.pdf |url-status=dead}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Moyeedul |title=Muldhara, 71 |year=2004 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-984-05-0121-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Islam |first=Rafiqul |title=A Tale of Millions |year=1981 |publisher=Bangladesh Books International |oclc=499426590}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Jacob |first=JFR |author-link=J. F. R. Jacob |title=Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation |year=1997 |publisher=Manohar |isbn=81-7304-189-X}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Khan |first=Fazal Mukeem |title=Pakistan's Crisis in Leadership |year=1973 |publisher=National Book Foundation |oclc=976643179}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Safiullah |first=K. M. |author-link=K. M. Shafiullah |title=Bangladesh at War |year=1989 |publisher=Academic Publishers |oclc=24300969}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Sajjad |first=Tazreena |title=Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide |year=2012 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-1412847599 |pages=219–248 |edition=Reprint |editor=Samuel Totten |chapter=The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Salik |first=Siddiq |author-link=Siddique Salik |title=Witness to Surrender |year=1997 |orig-year=First published 1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-577761-1}} |
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* {{cite journal |last=Sharlach |first=Lisa |title=Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda |journal=New Political Science |year=2000 |volume=1 |issue=22 |doi=10.1080/713687893 |pages=89–102 |s2cid=144966485}} |
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* {{cite book |last=van Schendel |first=Willem |title=A History of Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y2bBQAAQBAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-99741-9 |access-date=4 December 2018 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214523/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y2bBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} |
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{{refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
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{{Main list|List of books on Liberation War of Bangladesh}} |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* Ayoob, Mohammed and [[K. Subrahmanyam|Subrahmanyam, K.]], ''The Liberation War'', S. Chand and Co. pvt Ltd. New Delhi, 1972. |
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* Bass, Gary J. ''The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide.'' Vintage, 2014. {{ISBN|0307744620}} |
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* Bhargava, G.S., ''Crush India or Pakistan's Death Wish'', ISSD, New Delhi, 1972. |
* Bhargava, G.S., ''Crush India or Pakistan's Death Wish'', ISSD, New Delhi, 1972. |
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* Bhattacharyya, S. K., ''Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh: A Horror Story'', A. Ghosh Publishers, 1988. |
* Bhattacharyya, S. K., ''Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh: A Horror Story'', A. Ghosh Publishers, 1988. |
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* Blood, A. K. (2005). The cruel birth of Bangladesh: Memoirs of an American diplomat. Dhaka: University Press. |
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* [[Susan Brownmiller|Brownmiller, Susan]]: ''Against Our Will : Men, Women, and Rape'', Ballantine Books, 1993. |
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* [[Susan Brownmiller|Brownmiller, Susan]]: ''Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape'', Ballantine Books, 1993. |
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* Choudhury, G.W., ''The Last Days of United Pakistan'', Oxford University Press, 1994. |
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* {{cite journal |last=Choudhury |first=G. W. |author-link=G. W. Choudhury |date=April 1972 |title=Bangladesh: Why It Happened |journal=International Affairs |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=242–249 |doi=10.2307/2613440 |issn=0020-5850 |jstor=2613440}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Choudhury |first=G. W. |author-link=G. W. Choudhury |year=1994 |orig-year=First published 1974 |title=The Last Days of United Pakistan |publisher=University Press |location=Dhaka |isbn=978-984-05-1242-3}} |
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* Govt. of Bangladesh, ''Documents of the war of Independence'', Vol 01–16, Ministry of Information. |
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* Hitchens, Christopher, ''The Trials of Henry Kissinger'', Verso (2001). {{ISBN|1-85984-631-9}} |
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* Kanjilal, Kalidas, ''The Perishing Humanity'', Sahitya Loke, Calcutta, 1976 |
* Kanjilal, Kalidas, ''The Perishing Humanity'', Sahitya Loke, Calcutta, 1976 |
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* Johnson, Rob, 'A Region in Turmoil' (New York and London, 2005) |
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* Malik, Amita, ''The Year of the Vulture'', Orient Longmans, New Delhi, 1972. |
* Malik, Amita, ''The Year of the Vulture'', Orient Longmans, New Delhi, 1972. |
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* Matinuddin, General Kamal, ''Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971'', Wajidalis, Lahore, Pakistan, 1994. |
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* Mascarenhas, Anthony, ''The Rape of Bangla Desh'', Vikas Publications,1972. |
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* Mookherjee, Nayanika, ''A Lot of History: Sexual Violence, Public Memories and the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971'', D.Phil. thesis in Social Anthropology, SOAS, University of London, 2002. |
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* Matinuddin, General Kamal, ''Tragedy of Errors : East Pakistan Crisis, 1968-1971'', Wajidalis, Lahore, Pakistan, 1994. |
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* National Security Archive, [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79 The Tilt: the U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050420033838/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ |date=20 April 2005 }} |
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* Mookherjee, Nayanika, ''A Lot of History: Sexual Violence, Public Memories and the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971'', D. Phil thesis in Social Anthropology, SOAS, University of London, 2002. |
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* Quereshi, Major General Hakeem Arshad, ''The 1971 Indo-Pak War, A Soldiers Narrative'', Oxford University Press, 2002. |
* Quereshi, Major General Hakeem Arshad, ''The 1971 Indo-Pak War, A Soldiers Narrative'', Oxford University Press, 2002. |
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* Raghavan, Srinath, ''1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh,'' Harvard Univ. Press, 2013. |
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* Rummel, R.J., ''Death By Government'', Transaction Publishers, 1997. |
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* Sisson, Richard & Rose, Leo, ''War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh'', University of California Press (Berkeley), 1990. |
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* Salik, Siddiq, ''Witness to Surrender'', Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1977. |
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* Stephen, Pierre, and Payne, Robert, ''Massacre'', Macmillan, New York, (1973). {{ISBN|0-02-595240-4}} |
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* Sisson, Richard & Rose, Leo, ''War and secession : Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh'', University of California Press (Berkeley), 1990. |
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* Totten, Samuel et al, eds., ''Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views'', Garland Reference Library, 1997 |
* Totten, Samuel et al., eds., ''Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views'', Garland Reference Library, 1997 |
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* US Department of State Office of the Historian, [https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v11 ''Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120320/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v11 |date=22 December 2015 }} |
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* Zaheer, Hasan: ''The separation of East Pakistan : The rise and realization of Bengali Muslim nationalism'', Oxford University Press, 1994. |
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* Zaheer, Hasan: ''The separation of East Pakistan: The rise and realisation of Bengali Muslim nationalism'', Oxford University Press, 1994. |
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* {{cite book |title=O General My General (Life and Works of General M. A. G. Osmani) |year=2010 |author=Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar |publisher=The Osmani Memorial Trust, Dacca, Bangladesh |isbn=978-984-8866-18-4}} |
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{{refend}} |
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== |
==External links== |
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{{Commons category|Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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*[http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/W_0020.HTM Banglapedia article on the Liberation war of Bangladesh] |
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{{Wikiquote}} |
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*[http://ethikana.com/gallery/war.htm Picture Gallery of the Language Movement 1952 & the Independence War 1971 of Bangladesh] |
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* {{Banglapedia|War_of_Liberation,_The|The Liberation war of Bangladesh}} |
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*[http://www.newagebd.com/2005/feb/18/feb18/xtra_also3.html Bangladesh Liberation War. Mujibnagar. Government Documents 1971] |
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* [https://www.genocidebangladesh.org/ 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Archive] |
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*[http://meltingpot.fortunecity.com/hastings/430/index.html Images of genocide committed by Pakistan Army in Bangladesh] <sub>Graphic images, viewer discretion advised</sub> |
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* [https://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air Freedom In the Air], The Daily Star |
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*[http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html Virtual Bangladesh : History : Holocaust 1971] |
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*[http://www. |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100725125041/http://www.globalwebpost.com/genocide1971/witness/rounaq.htm Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030926035236/http://www.drishtipat.org/1971/war.htm The women of 1971. Tales of abuse and rape by the Pakistan Army] |
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*[http://www.redress.org/publications/Bangladesh.pdf Torture in Bangladesh 1971-2004 (PDF)] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030501230820/http://www.bangladeshmariners.com/HmdrRprt/71mass.html 1971 Massacre in Bangladesh and the Fallacy in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, Dr. M.A. Hasan] |
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*[http://www.globalwebpost.com/genocide1971/witness/rounaq.htm Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080223123938/http://www.adhunika.com/issues/wpawc71.html Women of Pakistan Apologize for War Crimes, 1996] |
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*[http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~faisal/Genocide.html Genocide 1971] |
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* [http://www.dawn.com/news/146732/sheikh-mujib-wanted-a-confederation-us-papers Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers, by Anwar Iqbal, Dawn, 7 July 2005] |
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*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/xi/ US Department of State on Foreign Relations and South Asia crisis 1969-1976] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041013132951/http://muktadhara.net/page11.html Page containing copies of the surrender documents] |
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*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971] |
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* [http://www.banglagallery.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=5 Bangladesh Liberation War Picture Gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926052212/http://www.banglagallery.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=5 |date=26 September 2021 }} <sub>Graphic images, viewer discretion advised</sub> |
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*[http://drishtipat.org/1971/war.htm The women of 1971. Tales of abuse and rape by the Pakistan Army.] |
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* [http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2010/12/victory_day/facts.html Rashid Askari:Liberation War facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192438/http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2010/12/victory_day/facts.html |date=2 January 2014 }} |
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*[http://humanists.net/avijit/26th_march/nights_and_days.htm Eyewitness account of the massacre at Dhaka University] |
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* [https://www.rbth.com/articles/2011/12/20/1971_war_how_russia_sank_nixons_gunboat_diplomacy_14041 1971 War: How Russia sank Nixon's gunboat diplomacy] |
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*[http://www.mukto-mona.com/new_site/mukto-mona/Articles/kasem/mathematics_genocide.htm Mathematics of a Massacre, Abul Kashem] |
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* [https://m.theindependentbd.com/arcprint/details/81841/2017-02-21 PM reiterated her vow to declare March 25 as Genocide Day] |
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*[http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.shtm The complete Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113441/http://gbnews24.com/breaking-news/article/call-for-international-recognitio/ Call for international recognition and observance of genocide day] |
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*[http://www.bangladeshmariners.com/HmdrRprt/71mass.html 1971 Massacre in Bangladesh and the Fallacy in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, Dr. M.A. Hasan] |
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* [http://www.observerbd.com/details.php?id=63378 Genocide Day: As it was in March 1971] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625033855/http://www.observerbd.com/details.php?id=63378 |date=25 June 2020 }} |
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*[http://www.adhunika.com/issues/wpawc71.html Women of Pakistan Apologize for War Crimes, 1996] |
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* [https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/the-case-for-un-recognition-of-bangladesh-genocide The case for UN recognition of Bangladesh genocide] |
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*[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_30-6-2005_pg1_2 Pakistan Army not involved in 1971 Rapes, by Khalid Hasan, Daily Times, June 30, 2005.] |
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*[http://www.drishtipat.org/1971/war-susan.html Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape by Susan Brownmiller, 1975] |
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*[http://www.dawn.com/2005/07/07/nat3.htm Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers, by Anwar Iqbal, Dawn, July 7, 2005] |
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*[http://www.muktadhara.net/page11.html Page containing copies of the surrender documents] |
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*[http://indianarmy.nic.in/arimage/Pak_surrender.WMV Video clip of the surrender by Pakistan] |
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*[http://www.banglagallery.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=5 Bangladesh Liberation War Picture Gallery] <sub>Graphic images, viewer discretion advised</sub> |
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Revision as of 23:09, 21 June 2024
Independence of Bangladesh |
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History of Bangladesh |
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The Bangladesh Liberation War[note 2] (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, pronounced [mukt̪iɟud̪d̪ʱo]), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement in East Pakistan, which resulted in the independence of Bangladesh. The war began when the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan—under the orders of Yahya Khan—launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971, initiating the Bangladesh genocide.[16]
In response to the violence, members of the Mukti Bahini—a guerrilla resistance movement formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians—launched a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military, liberating numerous towns and cities in the war's initial months. At first, the Pakistan Army regained momentum during the monsoon, but, Bengali guerrillas counterattacked by carrying out widespread sabotage, including through Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy, while the nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases.[17] India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on northern India. The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War involved fighting on two fronts; with air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre, and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Mukti Bahini and the Indian military, Pakistan surrendered in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, in what remains to date the largest surrender of armed personnel since the Second World War.[18][19]
Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed after the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, backed by Islamists, created radical religious militias—the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams—to assist it during raids on the local populace.[20][21][22][23][24] Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape, pursuing a systematic campaign of annihilation against nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The capital, Dhaka, was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Dhaka University massacre. Sectarian violence also broke out between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking Biharis. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighbouring India, while 30 million were internally displaced.[25]
The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the world's seventh-most populous country. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.
Background
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/India_religion_map_1909_en.jpg/290px-India_religion_map_1909_en.jpg)
Before the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim-majority states in British India's eastern and northwestern zones. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946 but opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India.[26]
Political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India,[27] giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus, respectively, after the British departed. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west, with India in between.[26]
The western zone was popularly (and, for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern-day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later East Pakistan. Although the two zones' population was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan, and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge.[28]
On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal[29] and suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight.[30] The Pakistan Army's violent crackdown[31] led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971.[32] Most Bengalis supported this move, although some Islamists and Biharis opposed it and sided with the Pakistan Army instead.[33]
Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government's authority, beginning the civil war.[32] The war led a substantial number of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million)[34][35] to flood India's eastern provinces.[36] Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India actively aided and organised the Bangladeshi resistance army, the Mukti Bahini.[citation needed]
Language controversy
In 1948, Governor-General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu" would be Pakistan's federal language.[37][38] But Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western subcontinent; in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo-European languages.[39] Bengali speakers constituted over 56% of Pakistan's population.[40][41]
The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj.[42]
The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. In memory of the deaths, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day in November 1999.[42]
Disparities
Although, East Pakistan had the larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.[citation needed]
Year | Spending on West Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees) | Spending on East Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees) | Amount spent on East as percentage of West |
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1950–55 | 11,290 | 5,240 | 46.4 |
1955–60 | 16,550 | 5,240 | 31.7 |
1960–65 | 33,550 | 14,040 | 41.8 |
1965–70 | 51,950 | 21,410 | 41.2 |
Total | 113,340 | 45,930 | 40.5 |
Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol. I, published by the planning commission of Pakistan. |
East Pakistan was already economically disadvantaged at the time of Pakistan's creation yet this economic disparity only increased under Pakistani rule. Factors included not only the deliberate state discrimination in developmental policies but also the fact that the presence of the country's capital and more immigrant businessmen in the Western Wing directed greater government allocations there. Due to low numbers of native businessmen in East Pakistan, substantial labour unrest and a tense political environment, there were also much lower foreign investments in the eastern wing. The Pakistani state's economic outlook was geared towards urban industry, which was not compatible with East Pakistan's mainly agrarian economy.[43]
Also, Bengalis were underrepresented in the Pakistani military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5% of the overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts.[44] West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined", unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; Bengalis dismissed the "martial races" notion as ridiculous and humiliating.[44]
Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under-strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to repulse any Indian retaliations during the conflict.[45][46]
Ideological and cultural differences
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shaheed_minar_Roehl.jpg/220px-Shaheed_minar_Roehl.jpg)
In 1947, the Bengali Muslims had identified themselves with Pakistan's Islamic project, but by the 1970s, the people of East Pakistan had given priority to their Bengali ethnicity over their religious identity, desiring a society in accordance with Western principles such as secularism, democracy and socialism.[47] Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm the Pakistani state imposed.[48]
Most members of West Pakistan's ruling elite shared a vision of a liberal society, but nevertheless viewed a common faith as an essential mobilising factor behind Pakistan's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan's multiple regional identities into one national identity.[48] West Pakistanis were substantially more supportive than East Pakistanis of an Islamic state, a tendency that persisted after 1971.[49]
Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings gradually outweighed any sense of religious unity. The Bengalis took great pride in their culture and language which, with its Bengali script and vocabulary, was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite, who believed that it had assimilated considerable Hindu cultural influences.[47][50] West Pakistanis, in an attempt to "Islamise" the East, wanted the Bengalis to adopt Urdu.[47] The activities of the language movement nurtured a sentiment among Bengalis in favour of discarding Pakistan's communalism in favour of secular politics.[51] The Awami League began propagating its secular message through its newspaper to the Bengali readership.[52]
The Awami League's emphasis on secularism differentiated it from the Muslim League.[53] In 1971, the Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders[54] and secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion-centred Pakistani nationalism.[55] While Pakistan's government strives for an Islamic state, Bangladesh was established secular.[49] After the liberation victory, the Awami League attempted to build a secular order[56] and the pro-Pakistan Islamist parties were barred from political participation.[57] The majority of East Pakistani ulama had either remained neutral or supported the Pakistani state, since they felt that the break-up of Pakistan would be detrimental for Islam.[58]
Political differences
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sheikh_Mujibur_Rahman_in_1950.jpg/170px-Sheikh_Mujibur_Rahman_in_1950.jpg)
Although, East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country's population,[59] political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit" scheme, whereby all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing's votes.[citation needed]
After the 1951 assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first prime minister, political power began to devolve to the new position of President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.[citation needed]
The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment swiftly deposed any East Pakistanis elected leader of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, and Iskander Mirza. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 – 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 – 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan People's Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan.[60]
Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme". Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country.[60]
After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan.[60] A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto.[60] Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as premier and Bhutto as president,[60] but Sheikh Mujib later ruled out such a possibility.[61] Meanwhile, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.[60]
On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:[citation needed]
- The immediate lifting of martial law.
- Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks.
- An inquiry into the loss of life.
- Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting 25 March.
He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence." This speech is considered[by whom?] the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.[citation needed]
Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all its international routes to urgently fly "government passengers" to Dacca. These "government passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.[citation needed]
Response to the 1970 cyclone
The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide,[62] killing an estimated 300,000 people. A 2017 World Meteorological Organization panel considers it the deadliest tropical cyclone since at least 1873.[63] A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips" and "mistakes" in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.[64]
A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference". They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage.[65] On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government's response.[66] Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.[citation needed]
As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long-term planning was curtailed.[67] This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.[68]
Operation Searchlight
A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army—codenamed Operation Searchlight—started on 25 March 1971 to curb the Bengali independence movement[30] by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military,[69] within one month. The Pakistani state used anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March to justify Operation Searchlight.[70]
Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.[71]
The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, resulting in East Pakistan's secession later that year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures that vary greatly, from 5,000 to 35,000 in Dacca, and 300,000 to 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole.[72] Independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward figures ranging from 125,000 to 505,000.[73] American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million.[74] The atrocities have been called acts of genocide.[75]
According to the Asia Times:[76]
At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands". Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush" Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able-bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.
Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall—Jagannath Hall—was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold-blooded killings at the university, but the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.[77]
The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West, when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role", with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saying that Mascarenhas' article led her "to prepare the ground for India's armed intervention".[78]
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.[79]
Declaration of independence
The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these incidents, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:[citation needed]
Today, Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla [May Bangladesh be victorious].
Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25–26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971).[citation needed]
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A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated into Bengali by Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation, but the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security for the station and also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971.[81] He broadcast the announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman:
This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.[82]
The Kalurghat Radio Station's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia[82] and later by the BBC.
M. A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.[83]
26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh.[84] Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until 16 December 1971.[citation needed]
Liberation War
March–June
At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged.[85] But when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasingly many Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al-Badrs and Al-Shams (mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.[citation needed]
On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as president, Syed Nazrul Islam as acting president, Tajuddin Ahmad as prime minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander-in-Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.[citation needed]
June–September
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Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M. A. G. Osmani as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col. Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain A. K. Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A. R. Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).[citation needed]
Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership about the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned a well trained force of 8,000 guerrillas, operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate eventual conventional combat.[86] With the Bangladesh government in exile, Osmani favoured a different strategy:[87][88]
- Bengali conventional forces would occupy lodgments inside Bangladesh and the Bangladesh government would request international diplomatic recognition and intervention. Initially Mymensingh was picked for this operation, but Osmani later settled on Sylhet.
- Sending the maximum number of guerrillas into Bangladesh as soon as possible with the following objectives:[89][90]
- Increasing Pakistani casualties through raids and ambush.
- Cripple economic activity by hitting power stations, railway lines, storage depots and communication networks.
- Destroy Pakistan Army mobility by blowing up bridges/culverts, fuel depots, trains and river crafts.
- The strategic objective was to make the Pakistanis spread their forces inside the province, so attacks could be made on isolated Pakistani detachments.
Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July,[91] each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to lead guerrilla operations. The Mukti Bahini forces were given two to five weeks of training by the Indian army on guerilla warfare.[92] Most of their training camps were near the border area and operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was placed under Osmani's command and included the Naval Commandos and C-in-C's special force.[93] Three brigades (eventually 8 battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.[94]
Five infantry battalions were reformed and positioned along the northern and eastern borders of Bangladesh. Three more battalions were raised, and artillery batteries were formed.[95] During June and July, Mukti Bahini regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2,000–5,000 guerrillas across the border,[96] the so-called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives.[97][98] Bengali regular forces also attacked border outposts in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near-accurate observation.[99]
Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.[100][101]
October–December
Major battles |
Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 border outposts fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar.[5] Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.[citation needed]
Indian involvement
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All unprejudiced persons objectively surveying the grim events in Bangladesh since March 25 have recognised the revolt of 75 million people, a people who were forced to the conclusion that neither their life, nor their liberty, to say nothing of the possibility of the pursuit of happiness, was available to them.
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Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, India would be economically better off going to war against Pakistan.[102] As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to "Go into East Pakistan".[103] Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India's decision to intervene in Pakistan's civil war.[102]
As a result, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini.[104] RAW helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, creating conditions conducive to a full-scale Indian military intervention in early December.[102]
The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a preemptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force's Operation Focus during the Six-Day War and intended to neutralise the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. India saw the strike as an open act of unprovoked aggression, which marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War. In response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries" even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.[105]
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Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more who were fighting irregularly. That was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions.[106] The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter the guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini.[107] Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.[citation needed]
Air and naval war
The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near-total air supremacy by the end of the first week, as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No.14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladeshi airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitola, Lalmonirhat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.[108][better source needed]
Surrender and aftermath
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On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, Chief Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan and Commander of Pakistan Army forces in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces and Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II.[11][109]
Bangladesh sought admission to the UN with most voting in its favour. China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally.[110] The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition.[111] To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs.[112]
India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925.[112] It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.[11] Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were pardoned by India.[113] The accord also gave back 13,000 km2 (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas,[114] most notably Kargil (which was in turn the focal point of a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace" and acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. But some in India[115] felt the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if Pakistanis perceived the accord as overly harsh.[citation needed]
Reaction in West Pakistan to the war
Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power.[116][117]
General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan".[116][117]
Atrocities
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During the war, there were widespread killings and other atrocities—including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights beginning with Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting paramilitary forces killed an estimated 300,000[78] to 3,000,000 people[118] and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape.[119][120] Pakistan's religious leaders openly supported the crime by labelling Bengali freedom fighters "Hindus" and Bengali women "the booty of war".[121] In fact, more than 80 percent of the Bengali people were Muslims at that time.[122]
A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al-Shams and Al-Badr forces,[123] at the instruction of the Pakistani Army.[124] Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and the Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.[125]
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Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh.[126] The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the U.S. State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians.[127] Numerous women were tortured, raped, and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are debated. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies.[128][129][130]
The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most were captured from Dacca University and private homes.[131] There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army,[132] but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis.[133] In June 1971, Bihari representatives said that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis.[134] R. J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.[135]
On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between U.S. embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C.[127] These documents show that U.S. officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide"[136] and "genocide" (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh,[137][138] although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.[citation needed]
International reactions
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Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.[citation needed]
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world's context of the war and to justify military action by India.[141] Also, following Pakistan's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.[citation needed]
United Nations
Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.[citation needed]
After India entered the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops". While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.[105][142]
On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the ceasefire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.[142]
Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.[141]
Bhutan
As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971.[143] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh, visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.[citation needed]
US and USSR
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The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan in terms of diplomacy and military threats.[144] US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People's Republic of China, with which Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China.[145][146]
To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran,[145] while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.[146]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Yahya_and_Nixon.jpg/220px-Yahya_and_Nixon.jpg)
Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal,[147] a move the Indians deemed a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.[148][149]
The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals—the United States and the People's Republic of China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the U.S. or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.[150]
At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972.[151] The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.[152]
China
As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. On 10 December 1971, Nixon instructed Kissinger to ask the Chinese to move some forces toward the frontier with India. Nixon said, "Threaten to move forces or move them, Henry, that's what they must do now". Kissinger met with Huang Hua, China's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, later that evening.[153][154][155]
The Chinese did not respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino-Indian War, when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality.[105] China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.[citation needed]
When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed its application[156] because two U.N. resolutions about the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented.[157] China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.[141][156]
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for itself and feared India might use its enhanced power against it in the future.[158]: 7 Despite the left-wing government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike following a neutral non-aligned foreign policy, Sri Lanka decided to help Pakistan in the war.[159][160] As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory, they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at Bandaranaike Airport in Sri Lanka where they were refuelled before flying to East Pakistan.[161]
Arab world
As many Arab countries were allied with both the United States and Pakistan, it was easy for Kissinger to encourage them to participate. He sent letters to both, the King of Jordan and the King of Saudi Arabia. Nixon gave permission for Jordan to send ten F-104s and promised to provide replacements.[145] According to author Martin Bowman, "Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia."[162]
Libyan dictator Gaddafi also personally directed a strongly worded letter to Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi accusing her of aggression against Pakistan, which endeared him to all Pakistanis.[163] In addition to these three countries, an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with Mirage IIIs.[citation needed]
In popular culture
See also
- Bangladesh Liberation War and Islam
- Awards and decorations of the Bangladesh Liberation War
- Liberation War Museum
- Movement demanding trial of war criminals (Bangladesh)
- NAP-Communist Party-Students Union Special Guerrilla Forces
- Kader Bahini
- Irregular military
Notes
- ^ a b Cooper and Ali's figures of 365,000 Pakistan Army and 280,000 paramilitary are for the entire Pakistan force, on the west and east fronts combined, when the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 broke out.[5] Cloughley clarifies that only a quarter of the 365,000 Pakistan Army, roughly 91,000, was in East Pakistan.[7]
- ^ This war is known in Bangla as Muktijuddho or Shwadhinota Juddho.[14] This war is also called the Civil War in Pakistan.[15]
References
- ^ "Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan forces in Dacca". mea.gov.in. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2017.
The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding-in –chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the eastern theatre.
- ^ Rizwana Shamshad (3 October 2017). Bangladeshi Migrants in India: Foreigners, Refugees, or Infiltrators?. OUP India. pp. 119–. ISBN 978-0-19-909159-1. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
- ^ Jing Lu (30 October 2018). On State Secession from International Law Perspectives. Springer. pp. 211–. ISBN 978-3-319-97448-4. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
- ^ J.L. Kaul; Anupam Jha (8 January 2018). Shifting Horizons of Public International Law: A South Asian Perspective. Springer. pp. 241–. ISBN 978-81-322-3724-2. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
- ^ a b c d "India – Pakistan War, 1971; Introduction By Tom Cooper, with Khan Syed Shaiz Ali". Acig.org. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
- ^ Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway By Owen Bennett-Jones, Lindsay Brown, John Mock, Sarina Singh, Pg 30
- ^ Cloughley, Brian (2016) [First published 1999]. A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (4th ed.). Simon and Schuster. pp. 149, 222. ISBN 978-1-63144-039-7.
- ^ Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 442. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
- ^ Thiranagama, Sharika; Kelly, Tobias, eds. (2012). Traitors : suspicion, intimacy, and the ethics of state-building. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812222371.
- ^ a b c Figures from The Fall of Dacca by Jagjit Singh Aurora in The Illustrated Weekly of India dated 23 December 1973 quoted in Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 486. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
- ^ a b c Khan, Shahnawaz (19 January 2005). "54 Indian PoWs of 1971 war still in Pakistan". Daily Times. Lahore. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
- ^ Figure from Pakistani Prisoners of War in India by Col S. P. Salunke p. 10 quoted in Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 485. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.)
- ^ "Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged". BBC. 13 May 2012. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
- ^ Historical Dictionary of Bangladesh, Page 289
- ^ Moss, Peter (2005). Secondary Social Studies For Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780195977042. OCLC 651126824.
- ^ Paul, Priyam Pritim (26 March 2024). "Administrative dynamics in 1971's War of Liberation". The Daily Star. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
- ^ Jamal, Ahmed (5–17 October 2008). "Mukti Bahini and the liberation war of Bangladesh: A review of conflicting views" (PDF). Asian Affairs. 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
- ^ Srinivasaraju, Sugata (21 December 2021). "The Bangladeshi liberation has lessons for India today". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
- ^ "Liberation War". Bangladesh High Commission, London. Retrieved 19 May 2024.
- ^ Schneider, B.; Post, J.; Kindt, M. (2009). The World's Most Threatening Terrorist Networks and Criminal Gangs. Springer. p. 57. ISBN 9780230623293. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ Kalia, Ravi (2012). Pakistan: From the Rhetoric of Democracy to the Rise of Militancy. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 9781136516412. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ Pg 600. Schmid, Alex, ed. (2011). The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41157-8.
- ^ Pg. 240 Tomsen, Peter (2011). The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers. Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
- ^ Roy, Kaushik; Gates, Professor Scott (2014). Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781472405791. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. p. 34. ISBN 9780313346422. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ a b "India Partition with Present Many Problems". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. 8 June 1947. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ "Britain Proposes Indian Partition". The Leader-Post. 2 June 1947. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ "Problems of Partition". The Sydney Morning Herald. 14 June 1947. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ "Gendercide Watch: Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971". gendercide.org. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ a b Bose 2005, p. 4465
- ^ Bass, Gary J. (29 September 2013). "Nixon and Kissinger's Forgotten Shame". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ a b "Civil War Rocks East Pakistan". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. 27 March 1971. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ Bose 2005, p. 4463
- ^ "World Refugee Day: Five human influxes that have shaped India". The Indian Express. 20 June 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
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Further reading
- Ayoob, Mohammed and Subrahmanyam, K., The Liberation War, S. Chand and Co. pvt Ltd. New Delhi, 1972.
- Bass, Gary J. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. Vintage, 2014. ISBN 0307744620
- Bhargava, G.S., Crush India or Pakistan's Death Wish, ISSD, New Delhi, 1972.
- Bhattacharyya, S. K., Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh: A Horror Story, A. Ghosh Publishers, 1988.
- Blood, A. K. (2005). The cruel birth of Bangladesh: Memoirs of an American diplomat. Dhaka: University Press.
- Brownmiller, Susan: Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1993.
- Choudhury, G. W. (April 1972). "Bangladesh: Why It Happened". International Affairs. 48 (2). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 242–249. doi:10.2307/2613440. ISSN 0020-5850. JSTOR 2613440.
- Choudhury, G. W. (1994) [First published 1974]. The Last Days of United Pakistan. Dhaka: University Press. ISBN 978-984-05-1242-3.
- Govt. of Bangladesh, Documents of the war of Independence, Vol 01–16, Ministry of Information.
- Hitchens, Christopher, The Trials of Henry Kissinger, Verso (2001). ISBN 1-85984-631-9
- Kanjilal, Kalidas, The Perishing Humanity, Sahitya Loke, Calcutta, 1976
- Johnson, Rob, 'A Region in Turmoil' (New York and London, 2005)
- Malik, Amita, The Year of the Vulture, Orient Longmans, New Delhi, 1972.
- Matinuddin, General Kamal, Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971, Wajidalis, Lahore, Pakistan, 1994.
- Mookherjee, Nayanika, A Lot of History: Sexual Violence, Public Memories and the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, D.Phil. thesis in Social Anthropology, SOAS, University of London, 2002.
- National Security Archive, The Tilt: the U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 Archived 20 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine
- Quereshi, Major General Hakeem Arshad, The 1971 Indo-Pak War, A Soldiers Narrative, Oxford University Press, 2002.
- Raghavan, Srinath, 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh, Harvard Univ. Press, 2013.
- Sisson, Richard & Rose, Leo, War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1990.
- Stephen, Pierre, and Payne, Robert, Massacre, Macmillan, New York, (1973). ISBN 0-02-595240-4
- Totten, Samuel et al., eds., Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, Garland Reference Library, 1997
- US Department of State Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971 Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- Zaheer, Hasan: The separation of East Pakistan: The rise and realisation of Bengali Muslim nationalism, Oxford University Press, 1994.
- Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar (2010). O General My General (Life and Works of General M. A. G. Osmani). The Osmani Memorial Trust, Dacca, Bangladesh. ISBN 978-984-8866-18-4.
External links
- The Liberation war of Bangladesh at Banglapedia
- 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Archive
- Freedom In the Air, The Daily Star
- Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh
- The women of 1971. Tales of abuse and rape by the Pakistan Army
- 1971 Massacre in Bangladesh and the Fallacy in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, Dr. M.A. Hasan
- Women of Pakistan Apologize for War Crimes, 1996
- Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers, by Anwar Iqbal, Dawn, 7 July 2005
- Page containing copies of the surrender documents
- Bangladesh Liberation War Picture Gallery Archived 26 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine Graphic images, viewer discretion advised
- Rashid Askari:Liberation War facts Archived 2 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- 1971 War: How Russia sank Nixon's gunboat diplomacy
- PM reiterated her vow to declare March 25 as Genocide Day
- Call for international recognition and observance of genocide day
- Genocide Day: As it was in March 1971 Archived 25 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- The case for UN recognition of Bangladesh genocide