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A 2006 report by the [[Bushfire CRC]] acknowledges the complexity of climate predictions pointing out "Much of [Australia's] vegetation has a complex evolutionary and dependent relationship with fire. Fire has been part of these environments for tens of thousands of years and much native flora and fauna remains dependent on it in various ways."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bushfirecrc.com/publications/downloads/Firenote_climate190906.pdf|title=Climate Change and Its Impact on the Management of Brushfire|date=September 2006|publisher=Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre|pages=4|accessdate=25 October 2013}}</ref> |
A 2006 report by the [[Bushfire CRC]] acknowledges the complexity of climate predictions pointing out "Much of [Australia's] vegetation has a complex evolutionary and dependent relationship with fire. Fire has been part of these environments for tens of thousands of years and much native flora and fauna remains dependent on it in various ways."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bushfirecrc.com/publications/downloads/Firenote_climate190906.pdf|title=Climate Change and Its Impact on the Management of Brushfire|date=September 2006|publisher=Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre|pages=4|accessdate=25 October 2013}}</ref> |
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However, Australia’s climate has warmed by more than one degree Celsius over the past century, causing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heat waves and droughts.<ref name="ScientificAmerican">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/australias-angry-summer-this-is-what-climate-change-looks-like/|title=Australia's Angry Summer: This Is What Climate Change Looks Like|author=Nerilie Abram|date=31 December 2019|publisher=Scientific American|accessdate=3 January 2019}}</ref> Eight of Australia's ten warmest years on record have occurred since 2005.<ref>[https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/climate-news/118568474/australia-bushfires-spew-twothirds-of-national-carbon-emissions-in-one-season Australia bushfires spew two-thirds of national carbon emissions in one season,] Stuff, 3 January 2019</ref> A study in 2018 conducted at Melbourne University found that the major droughts of the late 20th century and early 21st century in southern Australia are "likely without precedent over the past 400 years".<ref>[https://theconversation.com/recent-australian-droughts-may-be-the-worst-in-800-years-94292 Recent Australian droughts may be the worst in 800 years,] The Conversation, 2 May 2018. </ref> Across the country, the average summer temperatures have increased leading to record breaking hot weather, <ref>[https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/not-normal-climate-change-bushfire-web/ The facts about bushfires and climate change,] Climate Council, 13 November 2019</ref> with the early summer of 2019 the hottest on record.<ref> [https://www.tai.org.au/sites/default/files/Climate%20of%20the%20Nation%202019%20%5BWEB%5D.pdf Climate of the Nation2019,] The Australia Institute, p. 3.</ref> |
However, Australia’s climate has warmed by more than one degree Celsius over the past century, causing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heat waves and droughts.<ref name="ScientificAmerican">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/australias-angry-summer-this-is-what-climate-change-looks-like/|title=Australia's Angry Summer: This Is What Climate Change Looks Like|author=Nerilie Abram|date=31 December 2019|publisher=Scientific American|accessdate=3 January 2019}}</ref> Eight of Australia's ten warmest years on record have occurred since 2005.<ref>[https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/climate-news/118568474/australia-bushfires-spew-twothirds-of-national-carbon-emissions-in-one-season Australia bushfires spew two-thirds of national carbon emissions in one season,] Stuff, 3 January 2019</ref> A study in 2018 conducted at Melbourne University found that the major droughts of the late 20th century and early 21st century in southern Australia are "likely without precedent over the past 400 years".<ref>[https://theconversation.com/recent-australian-droughts-may-be-the-worst-in-800-years-94292 Recent Australian droughts may be the worst in 800 years,] The Conversation, 2 May 2018. </ref> Across the country, the average summer temperatures have increased leading to record breaking hot weather, <ref>[https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/not-normal-climate-change-bushfire-web/ The facts about bushfires and climate change,] Climate Council, 13 November 2019</ref> with the early summer of 2019 the hottest on record.<ref> [https://www.tai.org.au/sites/default/files/Climate%20of%20the%20Nation%202019%20%5BWEB%5D.pdf Climate of the Nation2019,] The Australia Institute, p. 3.</ref> 2019 was also Australia's driest ever year since 1900 with rainfall 40% lower than average.<ref> [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/explainer-what-are-the-underlying-causes-of-australias-shocking-bushfire-season Explainer: what are the underlying causes of Australia's shocking bushfire season?] The Guardian, 12 January 2020 |
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Heatwaves and droughts dry out the undergrowth and create conditions that increase the risk of bushfires. This has become worse in the last 30 years.<ref>[http://www.climateinstitute.org.au/verve/_resources/bushfirenationalbrief.pdf "Bushfire weather in Southeast Australia: Media Brief"], ''The Climate Institute'', 26 September 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2013.</ref> Since the mid-1990s, southeast Australia has experienced a 15% decline in late autumn and early winter rainfall and a 25% decline in average rainfall in April and May. Rainfall for January to August 2019 was the lowest on record in the Southern Downs (Queensland) and Northern Tablelands (New South Wales) with some areas 77% below the longterm average.<ref>[https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/not-normal-climate-change-bushfire-web/ The Facts about Bushfires and Climate Change,] Climate Council 13 November 2019</ref> |
Heatwaves and droughts dry out the undergrowth and create conditions that increase the risk of bushfires. This has become worse in the last 30 years.<ref>[http://www.climateinstitute.org.au/verve/_resources/bushfirenationalbrief.pdf "Bushfire weather in Southeast Australia: Media Brief"], ''The Climate Institute'', 26 September 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2013.</ref> Since the mid-1990s, southeast Australia has experienced a 15% decline in late autumn and early winter rainfall and a 25% decline in average rainfall in April and May. Rainfall for January to August 2019 was the lowest on record in the Southern Downs (Queensland) and Northern Tablelands (New South Wales) with some areas 77% below the longterm average.<ref>[https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/not-normal-climate-change-bushfire-web/ The Facts about Bushfires and Climate Change,] Climate Council 13 November 2019</ref> |
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Economic Sector 2017, Australia’s National Greenhouse Accounts, department of the Environment & Energy, August 2019, p. 3</ref> in just the past three months. David Bowman, professor of pyrogeography and fire science at the University of Tasmania warns that so much damage has been done that Australian forests may take more than 100 years to re-absorb the carbon that has been released so far this fire season.<ref> [https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/climate-news/118568474/australia-bushfires-spew-twothirds-of-national-carbon-emissions-in-one-season Australia bushfires spew two-thirds of national carbon emissions in one season,] Stuff, 3 January 2020</ref> |
Economic Sector 2017, Australia’s National Greenhouse Accounts, department of the Environment & Energy, August 2019, p. 3</ref> in just the past three months. David Bowman, professor of pyrogeography and fire science at the University of Tasmania warns that so much damage has been done that Australian forests may take more than 100 years to re-absorb the carbon that has been released so far this fire season.<ref> [https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/climate-news/118568474/australia-bushfires-spew-twothirds-of-national-carbon-emissions-in-one-season Australia bushfires spew two-thirds of national carbon emissions in one season,] Stuff, 3 January 2020</ref> |
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These bushfire emissions increase Australia's contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating the problems associated with global warming. |
These bushfire emissions increase Australia's contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating the problems associated with global warming. Climate studies show that conditions which promote extreme bushfires in Australia will only get worse as more greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere.<ref> [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/explainer-what-are-the-underlying-causes-of-australias-shocking-bushfire-season Explainer: what are the underlying causes of Australia's shocking bushfire season?] The Guardian, 12 January 2020 |
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=== Seasonality === |
=== Seasonality === |
Revision as of 19:35, 12 January 2020
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Swifts_creek_14-12-2006_1600_-2.jpg/220px-Swifts_creek_14-12-2006_1600_-2.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/2003_Bushfires_aftermath%2C_Big_River_near_Anglers_Rest.jpg/220px-2003_Bushfires_aftermath%2C_Big_River_near_Anglers_Rest.jpg)
Bushfires in Australia impact extensive areas and cause property damage and have accounted for the deaths of 800 people in Australia since 1851[1]. Major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur, such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday. Some of the most intense, extensive and deadly bushfires commonly occur during droughts and heat waves, such as the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave, which precipitated the conditions during the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 180 people died. Other major conflagrations include the 1851 Black Thursday bushfires, the 2006 December bushfires and the ongoing 2019–20 bushfires.[2]
Bushfires have always been a part of Australia's ecology and environment. Some of the country's native flora have evolved to rely on bushfires for reproduction, and fire events have been an interwoven part of the ecology of the continent for thousands of years. Aboriginal Australians used to use fire to clear grasslands for hunting and to clear tracks through dense vegetation; however this was only in periods of high rainfall and in very small grassland zones bordering desert.
Fire management, logging and farming strategies changed significantly with the arrival of European settlers in the 19th century. This led to more frequent bushfires. Heatwaves and drought associated with global warming have exacerbated the problem.
Categories
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Prospect_Hill_bushfires.jpg/220px-Prospect_Hill_bushfires.jpg)
The word "bushfire" builds on the concept of "the bush," referring to sparsely-inhabited regions. Bushfires in Australia are generally defined as uncontrolled, non-structural fires burning in a grass, scrub, bush, or forested area. Australia, being a geographically and meteorogically diverse continent, experiences many types of bushfires. There are two main categories, depending on local topography.
- Hilly/mountainous fires – burn in hilly, mountainous or alpine areas which are usually densely forested. The land is less accessible and not conducive to agriculture, thus many of these densely forested areas have been saved from deforestation and are protected by national, state and other parks. The steep terrain increases the speed and intensity of a firestorm. Where settlements are located in hilly or mountainous areas, bushfires can pose a threat to both life and property.
- Flat/grassland fires – burn along flat plains or areas of small undulation, predominantly covered in grasses or scrubland. These fires can move quickly, fanned by high winds in flat topography, and they quickly consume the small amounts of fuel/vegetation available. These fires pose less of a threat to settlements as they rarely reach the same intensity seen in major firestorms as the land is flat, the fires are easier to map and predict, and the terrain is more accessible for firefighting personnel. Many regions of predominantly flat terrain in Australia have been almost completely deforested for agriculture, reducing the fuel loads which would otherwise facilitate fires in these areas.
History
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Epicormic_Shoots_from_an_Epicormic_Bud_on_Eucalyptus_following_Bushfire_2%2C_near_Anglers_Rest%2C_Vic%2C_Aust%2C_jjron_27.3.2005.jpg/220px-Epicormic_Shoots_from_an_Epicormic_Bud_on_Eucalyptus_following_Bushfire_2%2C_near_Anglers_Rest%2C_Vic%2C_Aust%2C_jjron_27.3.2005.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bushfire_damage.jpg/220px-Bushfire_damage.jpg)
According to Tim Flannery (The Future Eaters), fire is one of the most important forces at work in the Australian environment. Aboriginal people used fire-stick farming to burn vegetation to facilitate hunting and promote the growth of bush potatoes and other edible ground-level plants. In central Australia, they used fire in this way to manage their country for thousands of years.[3] Flannery writes that "The use of fire by Aboriginal people was so widespread and constant that virtually every early explorer in Australia makes mention of it. It was Aboriginal fire that prompted James Cook to call Australia 'This continent of smoke'."
However Flannery goes on to say: "When control was wrested from the Aborigines and placed in the hands of Europeans, disaster resulted."[4] Fire suppression became the dominant paradigm in fire management leading to a significant shift away from traditional burning practices. A 2001 study found that the disruption of traditional burning practices and the introduction of unrestrained logging meant that many areas of Australia were now prone to extensive wildfires especially in the dry season.[5] A similar study in 2017 found that the removal of mature trees by Europeans since they began to settle in Australia may have triggered extensive shrub regeneration which presents a much greater fire fuel hazard.[6] Another factor was the introduction of Gamba grass imported into Queensland as a pasture grass in 1942, and planted on a large scale from 1983. This can fuel intense bushfires, leading to loss of tree cover and long-term environmental damage.[7][8]
Plants have evolved a variety of mechanisms to survive or even require bushfires (possessing epicormic shoots or lignotubers that sprout after a fire, or developing fire-resistant or fire-triggered seeds), or even encourage fire (eucalypts contain flammable oils in the leaves) as a way to eliminate competition from less fire-tolerant species.[9]
Causes
Bushfires can be triggered by natural causes such as lightning, but more frequently by man-made events such as arcing from overhead power lines, arson, accidental ignition in the course of agricultural clearing, grinding and welding activities, campfires, cigarettes and dropped matches, sparks from machinery, and controlled burn escapes. They spread based on the type and quantity of fuel that is available. Fuel can include everything from trees, underbrush and dry grassy fields to homes. Wind supplies the fire with additional oxygen pushing the fire across the land at a faster rate.
Large, violent wildfires can generate winds of their own, called fire whirls. Fire whirls are like tornadoes and result from the vortices created by the fire's heat. When these vortices are tilted from horizontal to vertical, this creates fire whirls. These whirls have been known to hurl flaming logs and burning debris over considerable distances.[10]
Some reports indicate that a changing climate could also be contributing to the ferocity of the 2019–20 fires with hotter, drier conditions making the country’s fire season longer and much more dangerous. [11] Strong winds also promote the rapid spread of fires by lifting burning embers into the air. This is known as spotting and can start a new fire up to 40km downwind from the fire front.[12] Fires can also be spread by black kites, whistling kites and brown falcons. These birds have been spotted picking up burning twigs, flying to areas of unburned grass and dropping them to start new fires there. This exposes their prey attempting to flee the blazes: small mammals, birds, lizards and insects.[13]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Fire_activity_swifts_creek_2007_edit.jpg/800px-Fire_activity_swifts_creek_2007_edit.jpg)
Climate change
A 2006 report by the Bushfire CRC acknowledges the complexity of climate predictions pointing out "Much of [Australia's] vegetation has a complex evolutionary and dependent relationship with fire. Fire has been part of these environments for tens of thousands of years and much native flora and fauna remains dependent on it in various ways."[14]
However, Australia’s climate has warmed by more than one degree Celsius over the past century, causing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heat waves and droughts.[15] Eight of Australia's ten warmest years on record have occurred since 2005.[16] A study in 2018 conducted at Melbourne University found that the major droughts of the late 20th century and early 21st century in southern Australia are "likely without precedent over the past 400 years".[17] Across the country, the average summer temperatures have increased leading to record breaking hot weather, [18] with the early summer of 2019 the hottest on record.[19] 2019 was also Australia's driest ever year since 1900 with rainfall 40% lower than average.[20]
Heatwaves and droughts dry out the undergrowth and create conditions that increase the risk of bushfires. This has become worse in the last 30 years.[21] Since the mid-1990s, southeast Australia has experienced a 15% decline in late autumn and early winter rainfall and a 25% decline in average rainfall in April and May. Rainfall for January to August 2019 was the lowest on record in the Southern Downs (Queensland) and Northern Tablelands (New South Wales) with some areas 77% below the longterm average.[22]
More than a decade ago the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that ongoing anthropogenic climate change was virtually certain to increase in intensity and frequency of fires in Australia – a conclusion that has been endorsed in numerous reports since.[15] In November 2019, the Australian Climate Council published a report titled This is Not Normal[23] which also found the catastrophic bushfire conditions affecting NSW and Queensland in late 2019 have been aggravated by climate change.[24] According to Nerilie Abram writing in Scientific American "the link between the current extremes and anthropogenic climate change is scientifically undisputable".[15]
Carbon emissions
Until the 2019–2020 Australian bushfire season, the forests in Australia were thought to reabsorb all the carbon released in bushfires across the country. This would mean the forests achieved net zero emissions. However, scientists now say that global warming is making bushfires burn more intensely and frequently and believe the current fires have already released about 350 million tonnes of carbon dioxide – as much as two-thirds of Australia's average annual carbon dioxide emissions (530 million tonnes in 2017)[25] in just the past three months. David Bowman, professor of pyrogeography and fire science at the University of Tasmania warns that so much damage has been done that Australian forests may take more than 100 years to re-absorb the carbon that has been released so far this fire season.[26]
These bushfire emissions increase Australia's contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating the problems associated with global warming. Climate studies show that conditions which promote extreme bushfires in Australia will only get worse as more greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere.[27]
Seasonality
Bushfires in Australia can occur all year-round, though the severity and the "bushfire season" varies by region.[28] These seasons are commonly grouped into years such as "2019–2020 Australian bushfire season" and typically run from June one year until May the next year.
In southeast Australia, bushfires tend to be most common and most severe during summer and autumn (December–March), in drought years, and particularly severe in El Niño years. Southeast Australia is fire-prone, and warm and dry conditions intensify the probability of fire.[29] In northern Australia, bushfires usually occur during the dry season (April to September),[30] and fire severity tends to be more associated with seasonal weather patterns. In the southwest, similarly, bushfires occur in the summer dry season and severity is usually related to seasonal growth. Fire frequency in the north is difficult to assess, as the vast majority of fires are caused by human activity, however lightning strikes are as common a cause as human-ignited fires and arson.
Impact on wildlife
Bush fires kill animals directly and also destroy local habitats, leaving the survivors vulnerable even once the fires have passed. Professor Chris Dickman at Sydney University estimates that in the first three months of the 2019-2020 bushfires, over 800 million animals died in NSW, and more than 1 billion nationally.[31] This figure includes mammals, birds and reptiles but does not include insects, bats or frogs. Many of these animals were burnt to death in the fires, with many others dying later due to the depletion of food and shelter resources and predation by feral cats and red foxes. Dickman adds that Australia has the highest rate of species lost of any area in the world.[32]
Koalas are perhaps the most vulnerable because they are slow-moving. In extreme fires koalas tend to climb up to the top of a tree and curl into a ball where they become trapped. In January 2020 it was reported that half of the 50,000 koalas on Kangaroo Island off Australia’s southern coast, which are kept separate to those on the mainland as insurance for the species’ future, are thought to have died in the previous few weeks.[33]
Wildlife ecologist Professor Euan Ritchie from Deakin University says that when fires have passed, frogs and skinks are left vulnerable when their habitats have been destroyed. Loss of habitat also affects already endangered species such as the western ground parrot, the Leadbeater's possum, the Mallee emu-wren (a bird which cannot fly very far), and Gilbert's potoroo. Beekeepers have also lost hives in bushfires.[34]
Kangaroos and wallabies can move quickly trying to escape from fires. However, the Guardian reported in January 2020 that dozens, maybe hundreds of kangaroos "perished in their droves" as they tried to outrun the flames near Batlow in NSW. [35] The most resilient animals are those that can burrow or fly. Possums often get singed, but can sometimes hide in tree hollows. Wombats and snakes tend to go underground.[34]
Goannas can actually benefit from bushfires. Dickman says: "In central Australia we've seen goannas coming out from their burrows after a fire and picking off injured animals – singed birds, young birds, small mammals, surface dwelling lizards and snakes."[34]
Impact on humans
The most devastating impact on humans is that bushfires have killed over 800 people since 1851.[36] In addition to loss of life, homes, properties and livestock are destroyed potentially leaving people homeless, traumatized, and without access to electricity, telecommunications and, in some cases, to drinking water.[37]
Health
Bushfires produce particulate-matter pollution - airborne particles that are small enough to enter and damage human lung tissue. Following the Hazelwood fire in 2014, Fay Johnston, an associate professor of public health at the University of Tasmania's Menzies Institute for Medical Research, says young children exposed to smoke either as infants, toddlers or in the womb develop changes to their lung function. She says: "Unborn babies exposed to the Hazelwood smoke were more likely to experience coughs or colds two to four years after the fires."[38] Other studies conducted in Australia show an increase in respiratory diseases among adults stemming from air pollution caused by bushfires.[39]
As a result of intense smoke and air pollution stemming from the fires, in January 2020 Canberra measured the worst air quality index of any major city in the world. The orange-tinged smoke entered homes and offices buildings across the capital making breathing outside very difficult, forcing businesses and institutions to shut their doors.[40] Studies show that residents of highly polluted cities also have an increased risk of heart attack, stroke and diabetes. Professor Jalaludin, a chief investigator with the Centre for Air Pollution, Energy and Health Policy Research, says: "There is increasing evidence around air pollution and (the development of) neurological conditions, for example Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's."[41]
Prof David Bowman, director of the Fire Centre Research Hub at the University of Tasmania, refers to the 2019-2020 fires as "absolutely transformative and unprecedented" in scale and says: "It's pretty much a third of the Australian population that has been impacted, with prolonged, episodic exposure and sometimes extreme health impacts." Since September 2019, close to 3,000 firefighters have been out every day in NSW battling blazes. The NSW RFS says close to 90% of those are unpaid volunteers.[42] David McBride, associate professor of occupational and environmental medicine at the University of Otago says: "They push themselves to the limit - they can suffer heat stress, which is a life-threatening injury, and end up with chronic bronchitis and asthma".[43]
Psychological problems
Psychological problems following a major bushfire appear to develop when people have a chance to stop and reflect on their experience. A study of 1,526 people who experienced significant losses in the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires found that after 12 months, 42% met the criteria for a psychiatric problem which is double the prevalence in an unaffected community. After twenty months this figure had dropped to 23%.[44]
A typical example of how people are affected is described by the 2016 fire at Yarloop in Western Australia. It virtually destroyed the town (population 395) including 180 homes, historic timber workshops, factories, an old church, the old hospital, shops, the hotel, the fire station and a part of the school. Two people died. Damage to infrastructure included the Samson Brook Bridge, Salmon River Bridge and power infrastructure supplying thousands of homes in the area.[45]
Two years later, local people were still suffering trauma distress from the fire. Apart from the economic losses suffered by those who lived there, the dislocation to their lives was so great that many in the community were doubtful that the town would be rebuilt. [46] The State Government subsequently spent $64 million rebuilding the town and the surrounding communities.[47]
Economic impact
Economic damage from 2009’s Black Saturday fires, the costliest in Australia's history, reached an estimated $4.4 billion. Moody's Analytics says the cost of the 2019-2020 bushfires is likely to exceed even that figure and will cripple consumer confidence and harm industries such as farming and tourism.[48] Medical bills from the current fires and smoke haze are expected to reach hundreds of millions of dollars with one analysis suggesting disruptions caused by the fire and smoke haze could cost Sydney as much as A$50 million a day.[49] The Insurance Council of Australia estimates that claims for damage from the fires would be more than A$700 million, with claims expected to jump when more fire-hit areas become accessible. In January 2020, the ANZ gauge of consumer confidence fell last week to its lowest level in more than four years.[50]
In response to the current fires, the federal government announced that compensation would be paid to volunteer firefighters, military personnel would be deployed to assist, and a A$2 billion bush fire recovery fund would be established. New South Wales, which has been hardest hit by the crisis, has pledged A$1 billion focused on repairing infrastructure.[51]
Official inquiries
After many major bushfires, state and federal governments in Australia have initiated inquiries to see what could be done to address the problem. A parliamentary report from 2010 says that between 1939 and 2010, there have been at least 18 major bushfire inquiries including state and federal parliamentary committee inquiries, COAG reports, coronial inquiries and Royal Commissions.[52] Another report published in 2015 says there have been 51 inquiries into wildfires and wildfire management since 1939. The authors note that: "The fact that catastrophic events continue to recur is evidence either that the community is failing to learn the lessons from the past, or the inquiries fail to identify the true learning - that catastrophic events may be inevitable, or that Royal Commissions are not the most effective way to identify relevant lessons from past events".[53]
In January 2020, in the middle of the 2019-2020 bushfire season, Prime Minister Scott Morrison raised the prospect of establishing another royal commission. Morrison told Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) that any inquiry into the crisis would need to be comprehensive and investigate climate change as well as other possible causes.[54]
Warnings
During the fire season the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) provides fire weather forecasts. Fire agencies determine the appropriate Fire Danger Rating by considering the predicted weather including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and dryness of vegetation. These Fire Danger Ratings are a feature of weather forecasts and alert the community to the actions they should take in preparation of the day. Ratings are broadcast via newspapers, radio, TV, and the internet.[55]
In 2009, a standardised Fire Danger Rating (FDR) was adopted by all Australian states. This included a whole new level – catastrophic fire danger. The first time this level of danger was forecast for Sydney was in November 2019 during the 2019–2020 Australian bushfire season.[56] In 2010, following a national review of the bush fire danger ratings, new trigger points for each rating were introduced for grassland areas in most jurisdictions.
Category | Fire Danger Index |
---|---|
Catastrophic / Code Red | Forest 100+ Grass 150+ |
Extreme | Forest 75–100 Grass 100–150 |
Severe | Forest 50–75 Grass 50–100 |
Very high | 25–50 |
High | 12–25 |
Low to moderate | 0–12 |
Remote monitoring
Remote monitoring of wildfires is done in Australia. Geoscience Australia developed the (real-time) Sentinel bushfire monitoring system. It uses data from satellites to help fire-fighting agencies assess and manage risks.[57][58][59] There is also MyFireWatch, which is a program based on an existing Department of Fire and Emergency Services (DFES) program, redeveloped by Landgate and Edith Cowan University (ECU) for use by the general public.[60][61] Besides the use of satellites, Australian firefighters also make use of UAV's as a tool for combating fire.[62]
Regional management
The Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC) is the peak body responsible for representing fire, emergency services and land management agencies in the Australasian region.
Queensland
The Rural Fire Service (RFS) is a volunteer-based firefighting agency and operates as part of the Queensland Fire and Emergency Services.[63]
New South Wales
Fire and Rescue NSW (FRNSW), the Forestry Corporation of NSW (FCNSW), the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) and the New South Wales Rural Fire Service (RFS) work together to manage and respond to fires across New South Wales.
South Australia
The Country Fire Service is a volunteer based fire service in the state of South Australia. The CFS operates as a part of the South Australian Fire and Emergency Services Commission (SAFECOM).
Victoria
In Victoria, the Country Fire Authority (CFA) provides firefighting and other emergency services to country areas and regional townships within the state, as well as large portions of the outer suburban areas and growth corridors of Melbourne not covered by the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.[64]
Responsibility for fire suppression and management, including planned burning on public land such as State Forests and National Parks, which makes up about 7.1 million hectares or about one third of the State, sits with the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP).
Western Australia
The Department of Fire and Emergency Services (DFES) and the Department of Parks and Wildlife (P&W) have joint responsibility for bushfire management in Western Australia.[65] DFES is an umbrella organisation supporting the Fire and Rescue Service (FRS), Bush Fire Service (BFS), Volunteer Fire and Rescue Service (VFRS), State Emergency Service (SES), Volunteer Fire and Emergency Service (VFES), Emergency Services Cadets and the Volunteer Marine Rescue Service (VMR).
Tasmania
The Tasmania Fire Service manages bushfires in Tasmania with the help of Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service and Forestry Tasmania.[66][67]
Guidelines for survival
Local authorities provide education and information for residents in bushfire-prone regions regarding the location of current fires,[68] preservation of life and property[69] and when to escape by car.[70]
Major bushfires in Australia
Bushfires have accounted for over 800 deaths in Australia since 1851 and, in 2012, the total accumulated cost was estimated at $1.6 billion.[71] In terms of monetary cost however, they rate behind the damage caused by drought, severe storms, hail, and cyclones,[72] perhaps because they most commonly occur outside highly populated urban areas. However, the severe fires of the summer of 2019–2020 affected densely populated areas including holiday destinations leading NSW Rural Fire Services Commissioner, Shane Fitzsimmons, to claim it was "absolutely" the worst bushfire season on record.[73]
Some of the most severe Australian bushfires (single fires and fire seasons), in chronological order, have included: note 2019/2020 bushfires have a combined total of hectares burned for the States names not single State totals.
Name or description | State(s) / territories |
Area burned (approx.) |
Date | Fatalities | Properties damaged | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ha | acres | ||||||
Black Thursday bushfires | Victoria | 5,000,000 | 12,000,000 | 6 February 1851 | about 12 | 1 million sheep; thousands of cattle | [74][75] |
Red Tuesday bushfires | Victoria | 260,000 | 640,000 | 1 February 1898 | 12 | 2,000 buildings | [75] |
1926 bushfires | Victoria | February–March 1926 | 60 | 1,000 | [76] | ||
Black Friday bushfires | Victoria | 2,000,000 | 4,900,000 | December 1938 – January 1939 | 71 | 3,700 | |
1944 bushfires | Victoria | 1,000,000 | 2,500,000 | 14 January – 14 February 1944 | 15–20 | more than 500 houses | [75] |
Woodford/Springwood Bushfire 1944, Blue Mountains | New South Wales | 18 November 1944 | Nil | 27 homes | |||
1951–52 bushfires | Victoria | 4,000,000 | 9,900,000 | November 1951 – January 1952 | 11 | [77] | |
Black Sunday bushfires | South Australia | 39,000–160,000 | 96,000–395,000 | 2 January 1955 | 2 | 40 dwellings including the Governor's summer residence at Marble Hill | |
Grose Valley bushfire, Blue Mountains 1957 | New South Wales | 30 November 1957 | 4 | 4 boys were killed on a bush walk out to Perrys Lookdown. 5 others survived. The leader of the group got help at Blackheath[citation needed] | |||
1957 Leura bushfire, Blue Mountains | New South Wales | 2 December 1957 | Nil | 170 homes in parts of Katoomba, Leura and Wentworth falls | One building that was destroyed was the Chateau Napier.[citation needed] | ||
1961 Western Australian bushfires | Western Australia | 1,800,000 | 4,400,000 | January–March 1961 | Nil | 160 homes | [78] |
1962 bushfires | Victoria | 14–16 January 1962 | 32 | 450 houses | [76] | ||
1965 Gippsland bushfires | Victoria | 315,000 | 780,000 | 21 Feb – 13 March 1965 | Nil | 60 buildings, 4000 stock | [79] |
Southern Highlands bushfires | New South Wales | 5–14 March 1965 | 3 | 59 homes | |||
Tasmanian "Black Tuesday" bushfires | Tasmania | 264,000 | 650,000 | 7 February 1967 | 62 | 1,293 homes | [75] |
Dandenong Ranges bushfire | Victoria | 1,920 | 4,700 | 19 February 1968 | 53 homes; 10 other buildings | ||
1968-69 Killarney Top Springs bushfires | Northern Territory | 40,000,000 | 99,000,000 | 1968-69 | [80] | ||
1968 Blue Mountains Bushfire | New South Wales | 29 November 1968 | 4 | over 120 homes | |||
1969 bushfires | Victoria | 8 January 1969 | 23 | 230 houses | [76] | ||
1969-70 Dry River-Victoria River fire | Northern Territory | 45,000,000 | 110,000,000 | 1969-70 | [80] | ||
1974 Moolah-Corinya bushfires, Far West NSW | New South Wales | 1,117,000 | 2,760,000 | Mid-December 1974 | 3 | 40 homes, 10,170 kilometres (6,320 mi) of fencing, 50,000 livestock | [81][82][83][84] |
1974 Cobar bushfire | New South Wales | 1,500,000 | 3,700,000 | Mid-December 1974 | [81][82][83][84] | ||
1974 Balranald bushfire | New South Wales | 340,000 | 840,000 | Mid December 1974 | [82][83][84] | ||
1974–75 New South Wales bushfires | New South Wales | 4,500,000 | 11,000,000 | 1974–1975 season | 6 | [85][86][87] | |
1974–1975 Northern Territory bushfires | Northern Territory | 45,000,000 | 110,000,000 | 1974–1975 season | [80] | ||
1974–1975 Queensland bushfires | Queensland | 7,500,000 | 19,000,000 | 1974–1975 season | [80] | ||
1974–1975 South Australia bushfires | South Australia | 17,000,000 | 42,000,000 | 1974–1975 season | [80] | ||
1974–1975 Western Australia bushfires | Western Australia | 29,000,000 | 72,000,000 | 1974–1975 season | [80] | ||
Western Districts bushfires | Victoria | 103,000 | 250,000 | 12 February 1977 | 4 | 116 houses, 340 buildings | |
Blue Mountains Fires 1977 | New South Wales | 54,000 | 130,000 | 17 December 1977 | 2 | 49 houses | |
1978 Western Australian bushfires | Western Australia | 114,000 | 280,000 | 4 April 1978 | 2 | 6 buildings (drop in wind in early evening is said to have saved the towns of Donnybrook, Boyup Brook, Manjimup, and Bridgetown.) | |
1979 Sydney bushfires | New South Wales | December 1979 | 5 | 28 homes destroyed, 20 homes damaged | [88] | ||
1980 Waterfall bushfire | New South Wales | 1,000,000 | 2,500,000 | 3 November 1980 | 5 firefighters | 14 homes | [89] |
Grays Point bushfire | New South Wales | 9 January 1983 | 3 volunteer firefighters | [90] | |||
Ash Wednesday bushfires |
|
418,000 | 1,030,000 | 16 February 1983 | 75 | about 2,400 houses | |
1984 Western New South Wales grasslands bushfires | New South Wales | 500,000 | 1,200,000 | 25 December 1984 | 40,000 livestock, $40 million damage | [82][83][84] | |
1985 Cobar bushfire | New South Wales | 516,000 | 1,280,000 | Mid January 1985 | Nil | [82][83] | |
1984/85 New South Wales bushfires | New South Wales | 3,500,000 | 8,600,000 | 1984–1985 season | 5 | [82][83][84][85][86][87] | |
Central Victoria bushfires | Victoria | 50,800 | 126,000 | 14 January 1985 | 3 | 180+ houses | |
1994 Eastern seaboard fires | New South Wales | 400,000 | 990,000 | 27 December 1993 – 16 January 1994 | 4 | 225 homes | [91] |
Wooroloo bushfire | Western Australia | 10,500 | 26,000 | 8 January 1997 | Nil | 16 homes | |
Dandenongs bushfire | Victoria | 400 | 990 | 21 January 1997 | 3 | 41 homes | [92] |
Lithgow bushfire | New South Wales | 2 December 1997 | 2 firefighters | [92] | |||
Menai bushfire | New South Wales | 2 December 1997 | 1 firefighter | 11 homes destroyed, 30 homes damaged | [93] | ||
Perth and SW Region bushfires | Western Australia | 23,000 | 57,000 | 2 December 1997 | 2 | 1 home lost | |
Linton bushfire | Victoria | 2 December 1998 | 5 firefighters | [94] | |||
Black Christmas bushfires | New South Wales | 300,000 | 740,000 | 25 December 2001 – 2002 | Nil | 121 homes | |
2002 NT bushfires | Northern Territory | 38,000,000 | 94,000,000 | August–November 2002 | [95] | ||
2003 Canberra bushfires | Australian Capital Territory | 160,000 | 400,000 | 18–22 January 2003 | 4 | almost 500 homes | [92] |
2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires | Victoria | 1,300,000 | 3,200,000 | 8 January – 8 March 2003 | 3 | 41 homes | |
Tenterden | Western Australia | 2,110,000 | 5,200,000 | December 2003 | 2 | [citation needed] | |
2005 Eyre Peninsula bushfire | South Australia | 77,964 | 192,650 | 10–12 January 2005 | 9 | 93 homes | |
2006 Central Coast bushfire | New South Wales | New Years Day, 2006 | |||||
Jail Break Inn Fire, Junee | New South Wales | 30,000 | 74,000 | New Years Day 2006 | Nil | Livestock losses estimated to be over 20,000. Seven homes, seven headers and four shearing sheds destroyed. 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) of fencing damaged. | [96][97] |
2005 Victorian bushfires | Victoria | 160,000 | 400,000 | December 2005 – January 2006 | 4 | 57 houses, 359 farm buildings, 65,000 stock losses, fires occurred in the Stawell, Moondarra, Anakie, Yea, and Kinglake regions. | [98] |
Grampians bushfire | Victoria | 184,000 | 450,000 | January 2006 | 2 | ||
Pulletop bushfire, Wagga Wagga | New South Wales | 9,000 | 22,000 | 6 February 2006 | Nil | 2,500 sheep and 6 cattle killed, 3 vehicles and 2 hay sheds destroyed as well as 50 kilometres (31 mi) of fencing. | |
The Great Divides bushfire | Victoria | 1,048,000 | 2,590,000 | 1 December 2006 – March 2007 | 1 | 51 homes | |
2006–07 Australian bushfire season |
|
1,360,000 | 3,400,000 | September 2006 – January 2007 | 5 | Over 100 structures including 83 houses; numerous non-residential structures | [99][100][101][102][103][104][105] |
Dwellingup bushfire | Western Australia | 12,000 | 30,000 | 4 February 2007 | Nil | 16 | |
Kangaroo Island bushfires | South Australia | 95,000 | 230,000 | 6–14 December 2007 | 1 | ||
Boorabbin National Park | Western Australia | 40,000 | 99,000 | 30 December 2007 | 3 | Powerlines and Great Eastern Highway, forced to close for 2 weeks. | |
Black Saturday bushfires | Victoria | 450,000 | 1,100,000 | 7 February 2009 – 14 March 2009 | 173 | 2,029+ houses, 2,000 other structures. | |
Toodyay bushfire | Western Australia | 3,000 | 7,400 | 29 December 2009 | Nil | 38 | |
Lake Clifton bushfire | Western Australia | 2,000 | 4,900 | 11 January 2011 | Nil | 10 homes destroyed. | |
Roleystone Kelmscott bushfire | Western Australia | 1,500 | 3,700 | 6–8 February 2011 | Nil | 72 homes destroyed, 32 damaged, Buckingham Bridge on Brookton Highway collapsed and closed for 3 weeks whilst a temporary bridge was constructed and opened a month after the fires. | |
Margaret River bushfire | Western Australia | 4,000 | 9,900 | 24 November 2011 | Nil | 34 homes destroyed including the historic Wallcliffe House. | [106] |
Tasmanian bushfires | Tasmania | 20,000 | 49,000 | 4 January 2013 | 1 | At least 170 buildings | |
Warrumbungle bushfire | New South Wales | 54,000 | 130,000 | 18 January 2013 | Nil | At least 53 homes, 118 sheds, agricultural machinery and livestock. Infrastructure destroyed at Siding Spring Observatory. | [107] |
2013 New South Wales bushfires | New South Wales | 100,000 | 250,000 | 17–28 October 2013 | 1 | As of 19 October 2013 at least 248 buildings destroyed statewide (inc. 208 dwellings), another 109 damaged in Springwood, Winmalee and Yellow Rock. Major fires also occurred in the Hunter, Central Coast, Macarthur and Port Stephens regions causing significant damage. | [108][109][110] |
Carnarvon bushfire complex | Western Australia | 800,000 | 2,000,000 | 27 December 2011 – 3 February 2012 | Nil | 11 pastoral stations (fences, watering systems, water points, stock feed). | |
2014 Parkerville bushfire | Western Australia | 386 | 950 | 12 January 2014 | Nil | 56 homes. | |
2015 Sampson Flat bushfires | South Australia | 20,000 | 49,000 | 2–9 January 2015 | Nil | 27 homes, 140 outbuildings | |
2015 O'Sullivan bushfire (Northcliffe – Windy Harbour) | Western Australia | 98,923 | 244,440 | 29 January – 20 February 2015 | Nil | 1 home and 1 inhabited shed, 5 farm sheds and thousands of hectares of production forests (karri and jarrah) or national parks. | |
2015 Lower Hotham bushfire (Boddington) | Western Australia | 52,373 | 129,420 | January 2015 | Nil | 1 house, 1 farm shed, 1 bridge and thousands of hectares of production forest (jarrah) or national parks. | |
2015 Esperance bushfires | Western Australia | 200,000 | 490,000 | October–November 2015 | 4 | About 10 houses and public buildings (Scaddan), 15,000 stock losses, 5 Nature Reserves et most area of Cape Arid national park. | [111][112] |
Perth Hills bushfire complex – Solus Group | Western Australia | 10,016 | 24,750 | 15–24 November 2015 | Nil | Jarrah production forest and Conservation Park. | |
2015 Pinery bushfire | South Australia | 85,000 | 210,000 | 25 November – 2 December 2015 | 2 | 91 dwellings. | |
2016 Murray Road bushfire (Waroona and Harvey) | Western Australia | 69,165 | 170,910 | January 2016 | 2 | 181 dwellings (166 only in Yarloop), historical Yarloop Workshops and thousands of hectares of Lane Poole Reserve and production forest (jarrah). | [113] |
2017 New South Wales bushfires | New South Wales | 52,000 | 130,000 | 11–14 February 2017 | Nil | 35 dwellings. | [114] |
2017 Carwoola bushfire | New South Wales | 3,500 | 8,600 | 17–18 February 2017 | Nil | 11 dwellings destroyed; 12 damaged. | [115] |
2018 Tathra bushfire | New South Wales | 1,200 | 3,000 | 18–19 March 2018 | Nil | 69 houses and 30 caravans/cabins destroyed; 39 damaged. | [116] |
Tabulam bushfire | New South Wales | 4,000 | 9,900 | early February 2019 | Nil | 10 homes and 23 outbuildings destroyed. | |
Tingha bushfire | New South Wales | 17,000 | 42,000 | early February 2019 | Nil | 8 homes and 18 outbuildings destroyed. | |
2019–20 Australian bushfire season |
|
10,700,000 | 26,000,000 | 5 September 2019 – present | 29 (including 3 NSW firefighters and 1 VIC firefighter) | 2400+ homes currently confirmed destroyed (as of 10 January 2020)
*However this number expected to rise significantly pending updated count in East Gippsland region of Victoria |
[117][118][119][120][121][122][123] [124][125][126][127][128] At least 1,000,000,000 wild animals are estimated to have died (not including frogs and insects) with some species thought to be facing extinction. |
See also
- Australia Fire: People Abandoning Their Homes In Scorched Southeast
- Aerial firefighting and forestry in southern Australia
- Angry Summer, 2012–2013 Australian summer
- Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave, which generated extreme fire conditions
- List of natural disasters in Australia
- McArthur Forest Fire Danger Index
- AS3959
- Pyrotron, a device designed to help firefighters better understand how to combat the rapid spread of bush fires
- Wildfires in the United States
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External links