added sentence to summarize in lead Tag: Visual edit |
Albertaont (talk | contribs) →Russia: nothing in this paragraph talks about any claims Tag: Visual edit |
||
Line 161: | Line 161: | ||
====Mongolia==== |
====Mongolia==== |
||
Since 1990s, Mongolia has been dependant of China, economically. However, rumors of Chinese irredentist claims on Mongolia sometimes affect Mongolian opinions on China and foments Mongolia on seeking new allies to counter China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Mongolia-needs-allies-to-withstand-China-s-looming-threat|title=Mongolia needs allies to withstand China's looming threat|website=Nikkei Asian Review}}</ref> Mongolia has always been suspicious that China wants to claim Mongolian territory, and concerned by fears of China's [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] pouring into Mongolian territory.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|title=Mongolia-China relations|archivedate=2013-09-05|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6JPlL1zGk?url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+mn0146%29|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mn0146)|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|accessdate=2008-06-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="IHT">{{cite web|title=Chinese Look To Their Neighbours For New Opportunities To Trade |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1998/08/04/chitrade.t.php |publisher=[[International Herald Tribune]] |date=1998-08-04 |accessdate=2008-06-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220212901/http://www.iht.com/articles/1998/08/04/chitrade.t.php |archivedate=2008-02-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
Since 1990s, Mongolia has been dependant of China, economically. However, rumors of Chinese irredentist claims on Mongolia sometimes affect Mongolian opinions on China and foments Mongolia on seeking new allies to counter China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Mongolia-needs-allies-to-withstand-China-s-looming-threat|title=Mongolia needs allies to withstand China's looming threat|website=Nikkei Asian Review}}</ref> Mongolia has always been suspicious that China wants to claim Mongolian territory, and concerned by fears of China's [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] pouring into Mongolian territory.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|title=Mongolia-China relations|archivedate=2013-09-05|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6JPlL1zGk?url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+mn0146%29|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mn0146)|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|accessdate=2008-06-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="IHT">{{cite web|title=Chinese Look To Their Neighbours For New Opportunities To Trade |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1998/08/04/chitrade.t.php |publisher=[[International Herald Tribune]] |date=1998-08-04 |accessdate=2008-06-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220212901/http://www.iht.com/articles/1998/08/04/chitrade.t.php |archivedate=2008-02-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
||
====Russia==== |
|||
<!--Problems over Sakhalin on Wikimedia Commons[[File:Manchuria.png|thumb|Map of [[Manchuria]]. The [[Outer Manchuria|northern part of Manchuria]] was annexed by Russia in 19th century. China used to have claim over [[Sakhalin]], but never sent any inhabitants until Russian arrival.]]--> |
|||
Dispute between two countries have been solved in 2004, China and Russia have stopped claiming land from each other, and even now, the border between two remains the calmest among all border disputes China had. However, there has also been a perceived fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas.<ref name="AFPC_russiansfear">{{cite web|last=Santoli|first=Al|title=Russian far east residents fear takeover by China; Sino-Russian "strategic cooperation" pact aimed at US|website=|publisher=[[American Foreign Policy Council]]|date=January 29, 2001|url=http://www.afpc.org/crm/crm357.shtml |doi=|accessdate=March 25, 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071116171806/http://www.afpc.org/crm/crm357.shtml <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = November 16, 2007}}</ref><ref name="dawn_russiansfear">{{cite news|first=Peter |last=Baker |title=Russians fear Chinese 'takeover' of Far East regions |date=August 2, 2003 |newspaper=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |url=http://www.dawn.com/2003/08/02/int7.htm |accessdate=March 25, 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116195122/http://www.dawn.com/2003/08/02/int7.htm |archivedate=November 16, 2007 }}</ref> On the other hand, China has also downplayed issues of territorial and social problems with regard to Russia, even during the COVID-19 pandemic as part of boosting strategic relationship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/how-will-the-coronavirus-outbreak-affect-russia-china-relations/|title=How Will the Coronavirus Outbreak Affect Russia-China Relations?|website=thediplomat.com}}</ref> |
|||
==See also== |
==See also== |
Revision as of 06:33, 22 September 2020
Chinese irredentism refers to irredentist claims to parts of the former Chinese Empire, to the Republic of China and to even recent People's Republic of China. Chinese expansionism in history often provided a rationale for modern Chinese irredentism, which mostly concerns autonomous regions within China, Southeast Asia, Korea and Taiwan, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and Mongolia and Russia.
Background
In Chinese political theory, relations between foreign states were governed by the tributary system. Since the Emperor of China held the Mandate of Heaven, his rule was universal and extended to All under heaven. Sometimes neighboring states were actual protectorates or vassal states over which China exerted large amounts of influence, while in other cases foreign states merely acknowledged China's nominal suzerainty in order to gain access to Chinese trade, which took place through the tributary system.[1]
Qin dynasty
The king of the ancient state of Qin first unified the Chinese empire in 221 BC by conquering all of the other states in what was then considered China and proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" and became known as Qin Shi Huang.[2] Under the Qin, China started to expand southward and northward, clashing with ancient Viet, Korean and Xiongnu peoples.[3]
Han dynasty
The ancient Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) established control over northern Vietnam, northern Korea where they also established Four Commanderies of Han and the Tarim Basin of Central Asia.[4]
Sui dynasty
The Sui Dynasty attempted to expand into Korea but was stopped after disastrous campaigns that ended the dynasty.[5] The short-lived Sui dynasty (581–618 AD) also reinvaded Annam (northern Vietnam) and attacked Champa (southern Vietnam).
Tang dynasty
The later Tang dynasty (618–907) was the height of ancient Chinese expansion. aided the Korean Silla Kingdom in defeating their two Korean rivals, yet became shortchanged when they discovered Silla was not about to allow the Tang to claim much of Goguryeo's territory (as it had been under the Chinese Han dynasty's control a few centuries before, the Han having wrested it from native kingdoms at that time). The Tang Dynasty established control over the Tarim Basin region as well, fighting wars with the new Tibetan Empire and stripping them of their colonies in Central Asia, granting China total control of Central Asia until the An Lushan Rebellion.
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (960–1279), in securing maritime trade routes that ran from South East Asia into the Indian Ocean, had established fortified trade bases in the Philippines. It also sought to reclaim Vietnam and various northern heartland from the Jurchens, but it was unsuccessful.[6][7][8][9]
Yuan dynasty
The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) made attempts to invade Burma and Tibet.[10][11] However, its failed invasion of its attempt to conquer Vietnam and India, among others, led to the end of Mongol expansionist desires.[12][13][14][15]
Ming dynasty
During the Ming Dynasty, Yongle invaded Vietnam but was eventually defeated in the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động.[16] After the failure, the Ming stopped adhering to expansionism until the rise of the Qing dynasty.
Qing dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was a Manchu gunpowder empire that inaugurated a new age in Chinese expansionism. Under the Qing rule, China expanded beyond the Great Wall and started to annex more territories in process. The Qing invaded Korea, managed to conquer Mongolia, and also annexed modern territories of Xinjiang and Tibet as well.[17][18][19][20] The Qing dynasty also extended its control into Central Asia[21] and annexed Taiwan, which was previous controlled by Ming loyalists.[22] However, the Qing Empire on the same time failed to invade Burma, Vietnam and had very few successes in Nepal.[23][24][25] Qing expansionism slowed to a halt following its century of humiliation at the hands of Western powers.[26]
People's Republic of China
During the People's Republic of China era, China conquered Xinjiang[27] and Tibet.[28] China also fought a border war with India in 1962 which resulted in the gain of Aksai Chin.[29] In 1974, China invaded the Paracel Islands[30] which was seen as a resurgent Chinese expansionism.[31] China also fought a short war with Vietnam in 1979 which ended stalemate.[32]
Modern Chinese irredentism
Since the Chinese economic reform of 1978, China has managed to transform into a new economic, military and political superpower. In process, China has also expanded greatly its economy, and since 2010, is the second largest economy in the world. As China transformed, there have been hopes that China would give up its expansionist idea.[33] However, since the rise of Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping in power, and increasing territorial conflicts which China stated most of their disputed lands belong to China, Chinese irredentism is present today.[34][35]
Within the People's Republic of China
Hong Kong and Macau
China managed to reclaim Hong Kong in 1997 and followed up with Macau two years later, with both spanned 50 years to prepare for peaceful reintegration from autonomy to a main city under Chinese rule.[36][37][38]
However, China's disregard of the city's autonomy, especially in Hong Kong, led to anti-Chinese protests, especially the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, which resulted in the imposition of Hong Kong national security law by the Chinese government that openly eroded the autonomy of the city.[39][40][41][38]
Although Macau has been relatively calm, there had been several protests, albeit not at extent of Hong Kong's, the largest being 2007 Macau transfer of sovereignty anniversary protest.[42]
Tibet, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang
China has sought to retain its control over Tibet and Xinjiang by various historic and ruthless methods, including publishing historical claims traced from various ancient Chinese dynasties to make it unquestionable for China; to further repressive policy of persecution on ethnic Tibetans and Uyghurs from religious, cultural and linguistic forms.[43][41][44]
Southeast Sea
South China Sea
China has sought to gather claim over the sea since 2010s, by imposing nine-dash line, and attempts to reinforce the claim, both legal and illegal ways, which have been rejected by every disputing countries and other major nations in regard to China's expansionist ambitions over territorial claims over Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Brunei and Malaysia.[45][46] Further escalating the conflict, China announced the establishment of Sansha, which included entire of Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands triggering tensions.[47]
Mainland Southeast Asia
China has a multifaceted role in Internal conflict in Myanmar, where China has major economic interests as well as its relations with various insurgent groups bordering China.[48] On the other hand, China is believed, by majority of Burmese population, that is trying to disrupt peace process in Myanmar, and that China is planning to exert influence over Kachin State and Shan State from Myanmar, given its unstable and porous border.[49][50][51] Although Sino-Burmese border have been ratified, such concerns remain high in Myanmar due to China's role in the country.
Vietnam also has a number of disputes in mainland with China, especially in regard to Ban Gioc–Detian Falls, which, following the infamous 1979 war, had been divided into two sides, with Vietnam took over half and China seized the other and remains to even now.[52] There is still a strong sentiment in Vietnam that the entire of Ban Gioc must be Vietnamese, and China stole half of it, which was influenced by historic conflicts between Vietnam and China.[53]
Indonesia
Traditionally, Indonesia refrains from joining campaigns against China's claims in Southeast Asia, and adopts a moderate, pragmatic approach. However, nationalist sentiment started to rise in Indonesia following the sharp rise of Chinese irredentist movement claiming Natuna Regency as part of China.[54][55]
East Asia
East China Sea
In recent years, China's tensions with two other fellow economic superpowers, Japan and South Korea, have intensified. Triggered by the Senkaku Islands dispute (called Diaoyu in China), as well as Japan's control of Ryukyu Islands, which China thought to be its rightful reward following the end of World War II, the tensions have increased.[56] To reinforce the nationalist claims, China frequently deployed ships since 2010s to contest Japan's claims over the islands, force the Japanese to reinforce total claims over the islands.[57][58][59] Further, China laid claims over entire of Okinawa Island which triggered Japan's response.[60]
China has also attempted to reinforce its territorial claim over the Socotra Rock and has pushed forward by sending its ships, both civilian fishing and military ships to imposing ADIZ, thus challenging South Korea's sovereign claim, though it is less frequent than that of Japan's.[61][62][63]
Korean peninsula
Since 2000s, a number of historic disputes with regard of Goguryeo led to a growing sentiment in Korea, both North and South that, China has been trying to reinforce and claim Korean territory throughout historical distortion, partly owning by the development of Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in China.[64] Although the project ended in 2007, historic spats remain.[65]
Outside that, China also seeks to claim Paektu Mountain from Korea, which led to strong criticism against China in South Korea that China is trying to grab the mountain to China, as the mountain is seen as a sacred symbol by Koreans.[66]
Taiwan
The People's Republic of China and Republic of China (Taiwan) have largely agreed under the One-China policy that only one China could be recognized as the legitimate China since 1992. However, skepticism from Taiwanese toward China was intensified by growing Chinese nationalist claim over Taiwan and its open threat to invade the island.[67] Since the election of Tsai Ing-wen, Beijing has stepped up attempting to consolidate the island, and doing military drills for any possible invasion on Taiwan.[68][69]
South Asia
India
China has territorial disputes with India with regard to Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh, partly a consequence of the British expedition to Tibet which led the land to be under Indian control by the Simla Convention, as India was under British rule.[70] Tensions between two countries have erupted into war several times, with the largest war being the Sino-Indian War of 1962 which China managed to control Aksai Chin from India, and 1967 conflict that China suffered military defeat to India.[29][71] The recent 2020 border clashes, which caused casualties for both sides, further strained the relations.[72]
China has attempted to reinforce the claim over by publishing varieties of map including Arunachal Pradesh to be Chinese territory.[73] China also pushes forward to reinforce its claim over Sikkim, Ladakh and consolidating border control in Aksai Chin.[74][75] Further complicating the relations, China openly endorses growing Nepalese and Pakistani irredentism against India to provide for China's stronger supports on its irredentist claims over Indian territory.[76]
Bhutan
China and Bhutan do not have any diplomatic missions. On June 29, 2017, Bhutan protested to China against the construction of a road in the disputed territory of Doklam, at the meeting point of Bhutan, India and China.[77] On the same day, the Bhutanese border was put on high alert and border security was tightened as a result of the growing tensions.[78] In 2020, China has sought to claim eastern Bhutan, including Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary, to be Chinese territory, which was considered as a surprise in Bhutan, further escalated the tensions between Bhutan and China.[79]
Nepal
China is currently Nepal's ally, a result of the strengthening power by the Nepal Communist Party.[80] The party has been more engaged in disputes with India and has sought to undermine its tensions with China amidst the increasing political crisis in Nepal.[81] Nonetheless, it became further complicated after CCTV's foreign outlet CGTN published on Twitter a tweet about the Mount Everest and called it Mount Qomolangma in the Tibetan language (Tibet is currently part of China), which caused widespread enrages from the Nepalese public that China is trying to claim the mount from Nepal.[82]
Central Asia
Although China doesn't have any significant disputes with Central Asia, growing Chinese nationalism resulted in a sharp rise of Chinese irredentism in the region, a part due to Chinese government's possible tacit support for nationalist claims.[83]
Kazakhstan
From 2019 to 2020, several private websites with tie to the Chinese government, sohu.com and tuotiao.com, published nationalist claims against Kazakhstan and stating that Kazakhstan has been territory of China for antiquity and Kazakhs should not complain about being invaded by China.[84] This has triggered significant criticism and hostility from the Kazakhstani side.[85][86]
Kyrgyzstan
Similar to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan has been facing growing Chinese irredentism. A Kyrgyz farmer in a 2017 interview claimed "We always run the risk of being colonized by the Chinese," in fear of future being colonized by China.[87]
In 2020, tuotiao.com published a nationalist claim that Kyrgyzstan should be back to China, claimed that the land had been Chinese under the Yuan and Qing until being colonized by Russia, which was criticized in Kyrgyzstan.[86]
Tajikistan
Even though China and Tajikistan have ratified its border, sporadic tensions have begun since 2010s. Resentment against China and Chinese also increased in Tajikistan recent years due to accusation of China's land grab from Tajikistan.[88] In 2013, Tajik Popular Social-Democrat Party leader, Rakhmatillo Zoirov, claimed Chinese troops were entering to Tajikistan deeper than it got from land ceding.[89]
In 2020, Tajikistan went headline with public uproar over China's attempt to grab Pamir from Tajikistan, and has been accused of deploying troops here.[90]
North Asia
Mongolia
Since 1990s, Mongolia has been dependant of China, economically. However, rumors of Chinese irredentist claims on Mongolia sometimes affect Mongolian opinions on China and foments Mongolia on seeking new allies to counter China.[91] Mongolia has always been suspicious that China wants to claim Mongolian territory, and concerned by fears of China's overpopulation pouring into Mongolian territory.[92][93]
See also
- Chinese imperialism
- Chinese nationalism
- Han chauvinism
- Anti-Chinese sentiment
- Sinicization
- Sinocentrism
- Salami slicing strategy
- String of Pearls strategy
- Five Fingers of Tibet policy
- Tributary system of China
References
- ^ Warren I. Cohen (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0231502511.
- ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 419. ISBN 978-1851096725.
- ^ "Qin dynasty of Ancient China".
- ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict. pp. 108, 196. ISBN 978-1851096725.
- ^ "우리역사넷". contents.history.go.kr.
- ^ "History Vietnam: From early ages to the Independence".
- ^ Smith, Paul Jakov (August 23, 2015). "A Crisis in the Literati State: The Sino-Tangut War and the Qingli-Era Reforms of Fan Zhongyan, 1040–1045". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 45: 59–137. doi:10.1353/sys.2015.0002. S2CID 164567132 – via Project MUSE.
- ^ https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/33088188/5.Alexander%20Kim.pdf?sequence=1
- ^ "The Song Dynasty | Boundless World History". courses.lumenlearning.com.
- ^ Hays, Jeffrey. "YUAN-MONGOL INVASIONS OF BURMA, JAVA AND VIETNAM | Facts and Details". factsanddetails.com.
- ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290817649_The_Mongol_conquest_of_Tibet
- ^ "When the Mongols Invaded Vietnam - A History of an Independent People | Teranga and Sun". September 19, 2012.
- ^ "How a Javanese King Defeated a Powerful Mongolian Emperor? | Seasia.co". Good News from Southeast Asia.
- ^ "History and Memory: The Mongol Invasions of Japan | TEA Online Curriculum Projects | University of Colorado Boulder". www.colorado.edu.
- ^ "India Should Be Grateful to Alauddin Khilji for Thwarting the Mongol Invasions". The Wire.
- ^ Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644. Contributors Denis Twitchett, John K. Fairbank (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0521243322. Archived from the original on 17 July 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Cosmo, Nicola Di (April 23, 2016). "The Extension of Ch′ing rule over Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Tibet, 1636–1800". The Cambridge History of China.
- ^ "Ally to Hegemon: The Early Manchu Khans' Changing Understanding of Tibet (1607-1735)". www.nwo.nl.
- ^ http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81009892.pdf
- ^ Theobald, Ulrich. "The Mongols during the Qing period (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de.
- ^ Onuma, Takahiro (August 23, 2014). "The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors". Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies. 12 (20200320). doi:10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.004. hdl:2027/spo.13401746.0012.004.
- ^ "Tensions Between China and Taiwan Go Back Further Than You Think". OZY. May 31, 2019.
- ^ "Medieval and Early Modern Myanmar and its Global Connections (900 - 1824AD)". www.lostfootsteps.org.
- ^ Leverenz, Niklas (January 1, 2019). "A Set of Eight Gurkha Campaign Copperplate Prints". Getty Research Journal. 11: 185–196. doi:10.1086/702753.
- ^ https://www.historynet.com/the-first-tet-offensive-of-1789.htm
- ^ Kuo, Kaiser (December 16, 2019). "How China's 'century of humiliation' resonates today". SupChina.
- ^ "How Stalin Elevated the Chinese Communist Party to Power in Xinjiang in 1949 | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org.
- ^ Hays, Jeffrey. "CHINESE TAKEOVER OF TIBET IN THE 1950s | Facts and Details". factsanddetails.com.
- ^ a b "Sino Indian war of 1962 - Manifest IAS".
- ^ "Lessons from the Battle of the Paracel Islands". thediplomat.com.
- ^ "Lessons from the Battle of the Paracel Islands". thediplomat.com.
- ^ "Ask The Vietnamese About War, And They Think China, Not The U.S." NPR.org.
- ^ "China: War Without Rules - Ming Zhang, 1999" (Document). doi:10.2968/055006007.
{{cite document}}
: Cite document requires|publisher=
(help) - ^ "Irredentism and Chinese Foreign Policy with regard to East and South China Sea". www.ipsa.org.
- ^ "Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?". IISS.
- ^ Editors, History com. "Hong Kong returned to China". HISTORY.
{{cite web}}
:|last=
has generic name (help) - ^ "Macau's Return to China | Britannica".
- ^ a b Callahan, William A. "National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation, and Chinese Nationalism". Alternatives: Global, Local, Political. 29 (2): 199–218. doi:10.1177/030437540402900204. ISSN 0304-3754.
- ^ "Why Hong Kong's National Security Law Is Having Such a Chilling Effect". Time.
- ^ "Goodbye autonomy, welcome to Hong Kong, China - and we mean it now". Hong Kong Free Press HKFP. July 12, 2020.
- ^ a b "Hong Kong, Taiwan and Chinese Irredentism: Is the "One Country, Two Systems" principle failing?". Noria. 2015-04-28. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
- ^ "Rare Macau protest turns violent". May 1, 2007 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ "UNPO: Tibet: China's Oppression of Minority Groups Goes Beyond Its Own Borders". unpo.org.
- ^ Roy, Denny (2019-01-02). "Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?". Survival. 61 (1): 51–74. doi:10.1080/00396338.2019.1568044. ISSN 0039-6338.
- ^ Gao, Zhiguo; Jia, Bing Bing (January 23, 2013). "The Nine-Dash Line in the South China Sea: History, Status, and Implications". American Journal of International Law. 107 (1): 98–123. doi:10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.1.0098 – via Cambridge Core.
- ^ "US rejects China's 'nine-dash line' in South China Sea". Nikkei Asian Review.
- ^ "Sansha and the Expansion of China's South China Sea Administration". Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative. May 12, 2020.
- ^ https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2018-09/ssg-report-chinas-role-in-myanmars-internal-conflicts.pdf
- ^ E. G. (1957). "The Burma-China Frontier Dispute". The World Today. 13 (2): 86–92. JSTOR 40392962.
- ^ Yhome, K. "Understanding China's Response to Ethnic Conflicts in Myanmar" (PDF). Observer Research Foundation.
- ^ "China's Role in Myanmar's Internal Conflicts" (PDF).
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Roth, Sam. "A Guide to Vietnam's Ban Gioc Falls". Culture Trip.
- ^ https://watermark.silverchair.com/vs_2014_9_4_33.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAp8wggKbBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggKMMIICiAIBADCCAoEGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMFzL0UBfDV_PVRaxlAgEQgIICUq_a5ddYBqTwidVoyYZRrW81t8Z6gT7i4ZoX57hTaUFo_1MOtW_nFTulZVVnE1xPtrbA__wbqCHq50EYafEhlNgUKsKJ4v1pRXxx6JHpBweUk6Ag8lVunK5MU2P6Vu5Sp2nnorkrh51mGvizTX4UFvpJ4RzBmu60bcXEvyW8P2NmMIE1fqS87L-ixV3HQ-9HaI29LreqKAOKf_ND-bRnOLnTnVgusIDNjedEGFJnV5q3mEdop0h3qUqKU5TjoS3s1M6iflkNrxY8DNYfKto-z3hhd0eqmg5K9zbgpO5FJTreEmLAY4Iae3J-8Pxkc_SrCyyyoJX8LfbSsT_tmTsZKsd4NFaTgETjDYjGzFEBa-4xHcKz-C5-JOmYLfAB0sZvALEpxGYQUaXmWsaAzlmbqWaGMSFsEK94vi7CBXh9c6zxHkeR596Fs7od3_6yqNSDpunreRQbEaEcA5kjM4mryamk-yCBMD07IjrkVTYSZQBbmKtRdPZDjMW7hXu1DEYQbIKStBcLa-FWlsLiOc7fR0Vz1ZwCuEwwAOeloeYFRyiVfIr6Izb6gew65CMwRLp4cV8fIZMhMFrtGEDlw85uF5oGXqG8jB5eqVaoOUe3a8o9TuFiZS0vBhaHUnxP3s2JWyQjGpC37cQKu8aUyDEYfddPd3UoTNwVESvp-AXasY69JVFUNMyCrceYRzNwY9cxqlylPnrpA1ew9eetaoYGhl12qhEUp-TMkKkhYwqwlbgYN96_I0j9HNAiPrvm72HV9yh51Z8xyFwuekGmerrxs3Kcag
- ^ Beech, Hannah; Suhartono, Muktita; Dean, Adam (March 31, 2020). "China Chases Indonesia's Fishing Fleets, Staking Claim to Sea's Riches" – via NYTimes.com.
- ^ "Why Is China Pressing Indonesia Again Over the Natuna Islands?". www.worldpoliticsreview.com.
- ^ "Flashpoint East China Sea: Potential Shocks". Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative. April 27, 2018.
- ^ "Japan's Effective Control of the Senkaku Islands | Research". Review of Island Studies.
- ^ "Japan reports a record number of Chinese ships near contested Senkaku Islands - Pacific - Stripes".
- ^ CNN, Brad Lendon and Yoko Wakatsuki. "Japan says Chinese ships spend record time violating its territorial waters". CNN.
{{cite web}}
:|last=
has generic name (help) - ^ Perlez, Jane (June 13, 2013). "Calls Grow in China to Press Claim for Okinawa" – via NYTimes.com.
- ^ Kuo, Lily (December 9, 2013). "Will a Tiny, Submerged Rock Spark a New Crisis in the East China Sea?". The Atlantic.
- ^ "South Korea's new patrol vessel around disputed Socotra rock". www.ajudaily.com. January 27, 2016.
- ^ "South Korea: The Challenges of a Maritime Nation | The National Bureau of Asian Research (NBR)".
- ^ Gries, Peter Hays (2005). "The Koguryo controversy, national identity, and Sino-Korean relations today". East Asia. 22 (4): 3–17. doi:10.1007/s12140-005-0001-y. S2CID 144129470 – via www.academia.edu.
- ^ Kwon, Yong. "Korea and China's Clashing Histories". thediplomat.com.
- ^ Miller, J. Berkshire. "China's Other Territorial Dispute: Baekdu Mountain". thediplomat.com.
- ^ "The Real Reasons Behind Chinese Expansionism". July 25, 2017.
- ^ "Chinese expansionism is a problem for democracy: Taiwanese foreign minister". www.efe.com.
- ^ "Taiwan, next target of China's hegemonic expansion". August 6, 2020.
- ^ guruswamy, mohan. "China and Arunachal Pradesh: Time to Understand the History". The Citizen.
- ^ "Remembering the war we forgot: 51 years ago, how India gave China a bloody nose". October 1, 2018.
- ^ Lee, Marcelo Duhalde, Dennis Wong, Kaliz. "Why did an India-China border clash turn into a deadly scuffle?". South China Morning Post.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "China includes parts of Arunachal Pradesh in its newly updated map". April 21, 2020.
- ^ France-Presse, Agence (August 16, 2017). "Indian and Chinese troops clash in disputed Himalayan border region". the Guardian.
- ^ Shafiq, Nadeem (December 31, 2011). "India versus China: A review of the Aksai Chin border dispute". Journal of Political Studies – via go.gale.com.
- ^ "China and Pakistan behind Nepal's move to usurp Indian territory: Sources". DNA India. June 14, 2020.
- ^ "Bhutan protests against China's road construction". The Straits Times. Jun 30, 2017. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
- ^ "Bhutan issues scathing statement against China, claims Beijing violated border agreements of 1988, 1998". Firstpost. Jun 30, 2017. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
- ^ "No Sanctuary: China's New Territorial Dispute with Bhutan". Foreign Policy Research Institute. July 29, 2020.
- ^ Chaudhury, Dipanjan Roy. "China interferes in Nepal to save Communist Party government" – via The Economic Times.
- ^ Rafiq, Arif. "Nepal is walking a tightrope between India and China". www.aljazeera.com.
- ^ Francis, Xavier (May 10, 2020). "After Claiming Mount Everest, China Now Says Mount Qomolangma is located on Nepal-China Border". EurAsian Times: Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News.
- ^ "Chinese nationalist internet warriors creating diplomatic disputes for China". ThinkChina - Big reads, Opinion & Columns on China.
- ^ Shepard, Wade. "China, Kazakhstan, And The Territorial Dispute That Isn't". newsilkroad.substack.com.
- ^ "Sino-Kazakh ties turn sour | The Standard".
- ^ a b "Chinese websites claim Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan part of China; draws ire of Central Asia". Zee News. May 11, 2020.
- ^ "Hopes and fears on people's Silk Road in Krygyzstan | Asia Times". web.archive.org. 2017-01-17. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Tajik social-democrats leader: China grabs more Tajik land than agreed. Posted by Ferghana International Agency, on April 16, 2013.
- ^ "Now, China eyes Pamir region in Tajikistan". WION.
- ^ "Mongolia needs allies to withstand China's looming threat". Nikkei Asian Review.
- ^ "Mongolia-China relations". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2013-09-05. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Chinese Look To Their Neighbours For New Opportunities To Trade". International Herald Tribune. 1998-08-04. Archived from the original on 2008-02-20. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
External links
- Chinese irredentism threatens Asia -- and may come back to haunt Beijing
- Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?
- Chinese Irredentism and the Great Rejuvenation
- Chinese nationalism and its foreign policy implications
- Could Han Chauvinism Turn the ‘Chinese Dream’ into a ‘Chinese Nightmare’?
- East China Sea or South China Sea, they are all China's Seas: comparing nationalism among China's maritime irredentist claims
- How Chinese Nationalism Is Changing
- The Rise of Chinese Exceptionalism in International Relations