The cradle of civilization is a term referring to locations where, according to current archaeological data, civilization is understood to have emerged. Current thinking is that there was no single "cradle", but several civilizations that developed independently, of which the Near Eastern Neolithics, Mesopotamia and Egypt, were the first.[1] Other civilizations arose in Asia among cultures situated along large river valleys, notably the Indus River in the Indian Subcontinent[2] and the Yellow River in China.[3] The extent to which there was significant influence between the early civilizations of the Fertile Crescent and those of East Asia is disputed. Scholars accept that the civilizations of Norte Chico in present-day Peru and that of Mesoamerica emerged independently from those in Eurasia.[4]
Scholars have defined civilization using various criteria such as the use of writing, cities, a class-based society, agriculture, animal husbandry, public buildings, metallurgy, and monumental architecture.[5][6] The term cradle of civilization has frequently been applied to a variety of cultures and areas, in particular the Ancient Near Eastern Chalcolithic (Ubaid period) and Fertile Crescent, Ancient India and Ancient China (the predecessor of East Asian Civilization). It has also been applied to ancient Anatolia, the Levant and Iran, and used to refer to culture predecessors—such as Ancient Greece as the predecessor of Western Civilization[7]—even when such sites are not understood as an independent development of civilization, as well as within national rhetoric.[8]
History of the idea
The concept 'cradle of civilization' is the subject of much debate. The figurative use of cradle to mean "the place or region in which anything is nurtured or sheltered in its earlier stage" is traced by the OED to Spenser (1590). Charles Rollin's Ancient History (1734) has "Egypt that served at first as the cradle of the holy nation."
The phrase "cradle of civilization" plays a certain role in national mysticism. It has been used in Eastern as well as Western cultures, for instance, in Hindu nationalism (In Search of the Cradle of Civilization 1995), and Taiwanese nationalism (Taiwan — The Cradle of Civilization[8] 2002). The terms also appear in esoteric pseudohistory, such as the Urantia Book claiming the title for "the second Eden," or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain (Civilization One 2004, Ancient Britain: The Cradle of Civilization 1921).
Rise of civilization
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The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BCE, when the Natufian culture became sedentary; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BCE.[9] The importance of water to safeguard an abundant and stable food supply, due to favourable conditions for hunting, fishing and gathering resources including cereals, provided an initial wide spectrum economy that triggered the creation of permanent villages.[10]
The earliest proto-urban settlements with several thousand inhabitants emerged in the Neolithic. The first cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and Uruk, by the 31st century BCE (see Historical urban community sizes).
Historic times are marked apart from prehistoric times when "records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations";[11] that is, with the development of writing. If the rise of civilization is taken to coincide with the development of writing out of proto-writing, the Near Eastern Chalcolithic, the transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age during the 4th millennium BCE, and the development of proto-writing in Harappa in the Indus Valley of South Asia around 3300 BCE are the earliest incidences, followed by Chinese proto-writing evolving into the oracle bone script, and again by the emergence of Mesoamerican writing systems from about 2000 BCE.
In the absence of written documents, most aspects of the rise of early civilizations are contained in archaeological assessments that document the development of formal institutions and the material culture. A "civilized" way of life is ultimately linked to conditions coming almost exclusively from intensive agriculture. Gordon Childe defined the development of civilization as the result of two successive revolutions: the Neolithic Revolution, triggering the development of settled communities, and the Urban Revolution, which enhanced tendencies towards dense settlements, specialized occupational groups, social classes, exploitation of surpluses, monumental public buildings and writing. Few of those conditions, however, are unchallenged by the records: dense settlements were not attested in Egypt's Old Kingdom and were absent in the Maya area; the Incas lacked writing altogether; and often monumental architecture preceded any indication of village settlement. For instance, in present-day Louisiana, researchers have determined that cultures that were primarily nomadic organized over generations to build earthwork mounds at seasonal settlements as early as 3400 BCE. Rather than a succession of events and preconditions, the rise of civilization could equally be hypothesized as an accelerated process that started with incipient agriculture and culminated in the Oriental Bronze Age.[12]
Single or multiple cradles
A traditional theory of the spread of civilization is that it began in the Fertile Crescent and spread out from there by influence.[13] Scholars more generally now believe that civilizations arose independently at several locations in both hemispheres. They have observed that sociocultural developments occurred along different timeframes. "Sedentary" and "nomadic" communities continued to interact considerably; they were not strictly divided among widely different cultural groups. The concept of a cradle of civilization has a focus where the inhabitants came to build cities, to create writing systems, to experiment in techniques for making pottery and using metals, to domesticate animals, and to develop complex social structures involving class systems.[4]
Current scholarship generally identifies six sites where civilization emerged independently: Mesopotamia, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Yellow River, the Central Andes, and Mesoamerica.[6][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]
Old World
Mesopotamia
Around 10,200 BCE the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BCE) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards.[22] One of the most notable PPNA settlements is Jericho in the Levant region, thought to be the world's first town (settled around 8500 BCE and fortified around 6800 BCE).[23][24] In Mesopotamia, the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation. The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are among the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies. It is because of this that the fertile crescent region, and Mesopotamia in particular, are often referred to as the cradle of civilization.[25] The period known as the Ubaid period (ca. 6500 to 3800 BCE) is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium.[26][27] In the south it has a very long duration between about 6500 and 3800 BCE when it is replaced by the Uruk period [28] Eridu is the oldest Sumerian site settled during this period, settled around 5300 BCE, and the city of Ur also first dates to the end of this period.[29]
Sumerian civilization first took form in the subsequent Uruk period (4000 to 3100 BCE).[30] Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and, during it's later phase, the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script. Proto-writing in the region dates to around 3500 BCE, with the earliest texts dating to 3300 BCE; early cuneiform writing emerged in 3000 BCE.[31] It was also It was during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along with cylinder seals.[32] Uruk trade networks started to expand to other parts of Mesopotamia and as far as North Caucasus, and strong signs of governmental organization and social stratification began to emerge leading to the Early Dynastic Period (ca. 2900 BCE).[33][34][35][36] The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period, although architectural precursors in the form of raised platforms date back to the Ubaid period,[37] and the second phase of the Early Dynastic Period (ca. 2700 BCE) is also when the legendary king Gilgamesh is believed to have reigned.[38]
Eannatum, the Sumerian king of Lagash, established one of the first verifiable empires in history in 2500 BCE.[39] The neighboring Elam, in modern Iran, was also part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period.[40] Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East.[41] The emergence of Elamite written records from around 3000 BCE also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found.[42][43] During the 3rd millennium BCE, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians.[44] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BCE.[45] The Semitic-speaking Akkadian empire emerged around 2350 BCE under Sargon the Great.[33] The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BCE. Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the Akkadian people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north, and, a few centuries later, Babylonia in the south.[46][46][47]
Egypt
The rise of dynastic Egypt (known as Khemet) in the Nile Valley occurred with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt in approximately 3200 BC, and ended at around 525 BC, at the start of the Achaemenid dynasty's control of Egypt. It is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. From around 7000 BC to 3000 BC the climate of the Sahara was much moister, offering good grazing land even in areas that are now very arid. Natural climate change after 3000 BC led to progressive arification of the region. It has been suggested that as a result of these changes, around 2500 BC early tribes from the Sahara were forced to concentrate along the Nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society. However it should be borne in mind that indigenous tribes would always have been present in the fertile Nile Valley and may have developed complex societies by themselves. Domesticated animals had already been imported from Asia between 7500 BC and 4000 BC (see Sahara: History, Cattle period), and there is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC.
By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle. Symbols on Gerzean pottery, c.4th millennium BC, resemble traditional hieroglyph writing. In ancient Egypt mortar was in use by 4000 BC, and ancient Egyptians were producing ceramic faience as early as 3500 BC. Ancient Egypt gains credit for the tallest ancient pyramids and early forms of surgery and barge transport.
It is now recognized that the pre-Dynastic Egyptian states were part of a string of inter-related cultures along the Nile Valley as far south as Sudan. Some of these (notably Ta-Seti and the city of pre-Kerma) had monarchies and urban development by 3000 BC. Pre-Kerma became the basis of the first Kushite empire (Kerma, c.2500–1500 BC).
Indus Valley
One of the earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia is Bhirrana along the ancient Swaraswati riverine system in the present day state of Haryana, dating to around 7600 BCE.[48] Other early sites include Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around the 7000 BCE.[49][50] The aceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasts from 7000 to 5500 BCE, with the ceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasting up to 3300 BCE; blending into the Early Bronze Age. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.[51][52] It is likely that the culture centered around Mehrgarh migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.[53]
The Indus Valley Civilisation starts around 3300 BCE with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BCE). The earliest examples of the Indus Script date to this period,[54][55] as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.[56] Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo.[57][58]
2600 BCE marks the Mature Harappan Phase during which Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres including Harappa, Dholavira, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi, and more than 1,000 towns and villages, often of relatively small size.[59] Mature Harappans evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin and displayed advanced levels of engineering.[60] The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[61]
Around 1800 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation.[62] However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilisation continue in later South Asian and Vedic cultures.[63]
China
Archaeological sites such as Sanxingdui and Erlitou show evidence of a Bronze Age civilization in China, with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia.[64] The earliest bronze knife was found at Majiayao in Gansu and Qinhai province dated 3000 BC.
The Yellow River was irrigated around 2205 BC, reputedly by Yu the Great, starting the semi-mythical Xia Dynasty. Archaeologists disagree whether or not there is archaeological evidence to support the existence of the Xia Dynasty, with some suggesting that the Bronze Age society, the Erlitou culture, was the site of this ancient, first recorded dynasty of China. The earliest archaeologically verifiable dynasty in recorded Chinese history, the Shang Dynasty, emerged around 1750 BC. The Shang Dynasty is attributed for bronze artifacts and oracle bones, which were turtle shells or cattle scapulae with markings reminiscent of ancient Chinese characters and found in the Huang He valley in Yin, a capital of the Shang Dynasty. Turtle shells from the Shang Dynasty have been carbon-dated to around 1500 BC.
Chinese civilization originated with city-states in the Yellow River valley. 221 BC is the commonly accepted year when China became culturally and politically unified under a large centralized empire, the Qin Dynasty, founded by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control the large territory from the center.
New World
The Americas also saw the emergence of several large, centralized civilizations: Norte Chico, Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Chimu, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Central Andes (Peru and Bolivia); Muisca in Colombia; Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Aztecs and the Mayas in Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central America).
Central Andes
The oldest known civilization in South America, as well as in the Western Hemisphere as a whole, the Norte Chico civilization comprised several interconnected settlements on or near the Peruvian coast, including the urban centers at Aspero and Caral. Human habitation in the area has been dated as early 9210 BC, with the formation of the first city by 3500 BC, at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area.[4] It is from 3200 BC onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction become clearly apparent.[65] Circa 1800 BC, the Norte Chico civilization began to decline, with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast, and to the east inside the belt of the Andes.[66] The presence of an early form of quipu (an Andean recording medium) at Caral indicates its potential influence on later Andean societies, as well as the antiquity of this unique recording system. The stone pyramids on the sites are thought to be contemporary to the great pyramids of Giza. Unusual among Andean societies, no evidence of fortifications, or other signs of warfare, have yet been found in the Norte Chico.
Mesoamerica
The Olmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican civilization, beginning around 1600–1400 BC and ending around 400 BC. This civilization is considered the mother culture of the Mesoamerican civilizations. The Mesoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the Mesoamerican pantheon seem to have begun with the Olmec.
Some elements of agriculture seem to have been practiced in Mesoamerica quite early. The domestication of maize is thought to have begun around 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest record of lowland maize cultivation dates to around 5100 BC.[67] Agriculture continued to be mixed with a hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle until quite late compared to other regions, but by 2700 BC, Mesoamericans were relying on maize, and living mostly in villages. Temple mounds and classes started to appear. By 1300/ 1200 BC, small centres coalesced into the Olmec civilization, which seems to have been a set of city-states, united in religious and commercial concerns. The Olmec cities had ceremonial complexes with earth/clay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, acqueducts and walled plazas. The first of these centers was at San Lorenzo (until 900 BC). La Venta was the last great Olmec centre. Olmec artisans sculpted jade and clay figurines of Jaguars and humans. Their iconic giant heads – believed to be of Olmec rulers – stood in every major city.
The Olmec civilization ended in 400 BC, with the defacing and destruction of San Lorenzo and La Venta, two of the major cities. It nevertheless spawned many other states, most notably the Mayan civilization, whose first cities began appearing around 700/ 600 BC. Olmec influences continued to appear in many later Mesoamerican civilizations.
Timeline
The following timeline shows the approximate dates of the emergence of civilization (as discussed in the article) in the featured areas and the primary cultures associated with these early civilizations. It is important to note that the timeline is not indicative of the beginning of human habitation, the start of a specific ethnic group, or the development of Neolithic cultures in the area; which often occurred significantly earlier than the emergence of civilization proper.
Cradle of Western civilization
There is academic consensus that Classical Greece is the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture, democracy, art, theatre, philosophy and science. For this reason it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization.[7][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] Along with Greece, Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics, republicanism, law, architecture, warfare and Western Christianity.[79][80][81][82][83]
See also
References
Notes
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- ^ "Indus River Valley Civilizations". History-world.org. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ Cradles of Civilization-China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land, Robert E. Murowchick, gen. ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994
- ^ a b c Mann, Charles C. (2006) [2005]. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Vintage Books. pp. 199–212. ISBN 1-4000-3205-9.
- ^ Haviland, William (2013). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. Cengage Learning. p. 250.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Trigger, Bruce G., Cambridge University Press, 2007
- ^ a b Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8239-3999-2.
- ^ a b Lin (林), Shengyi (勝義); He (何), Xianrong (顯榮) (2001). 臺灣--人類文明原鄉. Taiwan gu wen ming yan jiu cong shu (臺灣古文明研究叢書) (in Chinese). Taipei: Taiwan fei die xue yan jiu hui (台灣飛碟學硏究會). ISBN 978-957-30188-0-3. OCLC 52945170.
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- ^ "Rise of Civilizations: Mesopotamia to Mesoamerica", Archaeology, Wright, Henry T., vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 46–48, 96–100, 1990
- ^ "AP World History". College Board. Archived from the original on 22 April 2008. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
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- ^ "Civilization". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
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- ^ "Africanafrican.com" (PDF). Africanafrican.com. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society, Hommon, Robert J., Oxford University Press, 2013
- ^ Kennett, Douglas J.; Winterhalder, Bruce (2006). Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture. University of California Press. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-0-520-24647-8. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
- ^ Bellwood, Peter. First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. 2004. Wiley-Blackwell
- ^ Akhilesh Pillalamarri (18 April 2015). "Exploring the Indus Valley's Secrets". The diplomat. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
- ^ "Jericho", Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ "Ubaid Civilization". Ancientneareast.tripod.com. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- ^ Adams, Robert MCC. and Wright, Henry T. 1989. 'Concluding Remarks' in Henrickson, Elizabeth and Thuesen, Ingolf (eds.) Upon This Foundation - The ’Ubaid Reconsidered. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 451-456.
- ^ Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Number 63) The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (2010) ISBN 978-1-885923-66-0 p.2, at http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/saoc/saoc63.html; "Radiometric data suggest that the whole Southern Mesopotamian Ubaid period, including Ubaid 0 and 5, is of immense duration, spanning nearly three millennia from about 6500 to 3800 B.C".
- ^ Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham. 2010. 'Deconstructing the Ubaid' in Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham (eds.) Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 2.
- ^ Leick, Gwendolyn (2002), "Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City" (Penguin)
- ^ Crawford, Harriet E. W. Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge University Press. 2nd ed. 2004
- ^ Cuneiform ancient.eu
- ^ An Encyclopedia of World History. Langer, William L. ed. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston, MA. 1972
- ^ a b Pruß, Alexander (2004), "Remarks on the Chronological Periods", in Lebeau, Marc; Sauvage, Martin (eds.), Atlas of Preclassical Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu, vol. 13, pp. 7–21, ISBN 2503991203
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- ^ van de Mieroop, M. (2007), A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BCE, Malden: Blackwell, ISBN 0631225528
- ^ Crawford, page 73-74
- ^ Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, page 502
- ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2006). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective — Volume 1 (12th ed.). Belmont, California, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 22–23. ISBN 0-495-00479-0.
- ^ The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State - by D. T. Potts, Cambridge University Press, 29/07/1999 - page 46 - ISBN 0521563585 hardback
- ^ Elam: surveys of political history and archaeology, Elizabeth Carter and Matthew W. Stolper, University of California Press, 1984, p. 3
- ^ Hock, Hans Heinrich (2009). Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics (2nd ed.). Mouton de Gruyter. p. 69. ISBN 978-3110214291.
- ^ Gnanadesikan, Amalia (2008). The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet. Blackwell. p. 25. ISBN 978-1444304688.
- ^ Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3.
- ^ Woods, C. (2006). "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian" (PDF). S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120. Chicago.
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(help) - ^ a b J. M. Munn-Rankin (1975). "Assyrian Military Power, 1300–1200 B.C.". In I. E. S. Edwards (ed.). Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380–1000 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 287–288, 298.
- ^ Christopher Morgan (2006). Mark William Chavalas (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 145–152.
- ^ "Haryana's Bhirrana oldest Harappan site, Rakhigarhi Asia's largest: ASI". Times of India. 15 April 2015.
- ^ Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic"
- ^ Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28"
- ^ UNESCO World Heritage. 2004. ". Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh
- ^ Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. "Mehrgarh". Guide to Archaeology
- ^ Parpol, Asko. 2015. The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation. Oxford University Press
- ^ Peter T. Daniels. The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University. p. 372.
- ^ Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43079-8.
- ^ Thapar, B. K. (1975). "Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Indus Valley". Expedition. 17 (2): 19–32.
- ^ "Evidence for Patterns of Selective Urban Migration in the Greater Indus Valley (2600-1900 BCE): A Lead and Strontium Isotope Mortuary Analysis".
- ^ "Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities: New study".
- ^ "Indus re-enters India after two centuries, feeds Little Rann, Nal Sarovar". India Today. 7 November 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
- ^ Pruthi, Raj. Prehistory and Harappan Civilization. APH Publishing. p. 260.
- ^ Morris, A.E.J. (1994). History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions (Third ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-582-30154-2. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
- ^ "Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture?". Science Magazine. 320: 1282–3. 6 June 2008.
- ^ White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-226-89483-5.
- ^ [1] Template:Wayback
- ^ Haas, Jonathan; Winifred Creamer; Alvaro Ruiz (23 December 2004). "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". Nature. 432 (7020): 1020–1023. doi:10.1038/nature03146. PMID 15616561.
- ^ "Archaeologists shed new light on Americas' earliest known civilization" (Press release). Northern Illinois University. 22 December 2004. Archived from the original on 9 February 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
{{cite press release}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Agriculture's origin may be hidden in 'invisible' clues". Scienceblog.com. 14 February 2003. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- ^ John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
- ^ Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin. Western Europe, 1983. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337.
for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...
- ^ Frederick Copleston (1 June 2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6.
PART I PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT:
- ^ Mario Iozzo (2001). Art and History of Greece: And Mount Athos. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 7. ISBN 978-88-8029-435-1.
The capital of Greece, one of the world's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture,
- ^ Marxiano Melotti (25 May 2011). The Plastic Venuses: Archaeological Tourism in Post-Modern Society. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4438-3028-7.
In short, Greece, despite having been the cradle of Western culture, was then an "other" space separate from the West.
- ^ Library Journal. Vol. 97. Bowker. April 1972. p. 1588.
Ancient Greece: Cradle of Western Culture (Series), disc. 6 strips with 3 discs, range: 44–60 fr., 17–18 min
- ^ Stanley Mayer Burstein (2002). Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History. Regina Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-930053-10-6.
and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture.
- ^ Murray Milner, Jr. (8 January 2015). Elites: A General Model. John Wiley & Sons. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7456-8950-0.
Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization.
- ^ Slavica viterbiensia 003: Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell'Università della Tuscia. Gangemi Editore spa. 10 November 2011. p. 148. ISBN 978-88-492-6909-3.
The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture,
- ^ Kim Covert (1 July 2011). Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy. Capstone. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4296-6831-6.
Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.
- ^ Ricardo Duchesne (7 February 2011). The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. BRILL. p. 297. ISBN 90-04-19248-4.
The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the "cradle" of the West is endless; two more examples are Charles Freeman's The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (1999) and Bruce Thornton's Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization (2000)
- ^ Henry Turner Inman. "Rome: the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments". Amazon.com. ISBN 9781177738538. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ Michael Ed. Grant. "The Birth Of Western Civilisation, Greece & Rome". Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ HUXLEY, George ; et al. "9780500040034: The Birth of Western Civilization: Greece and Rome". AbeBooks.com. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
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(help) - ^ "Athens. Rome. Jerusalem and Vicinity. Peninsula of Mt. Sinai.: Geographicus Rare Antique Maps". Geographicus.com. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ "Download This PDF eBooks Free" (PDF). File104.filthbooks.org. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
Sources
- Samuel Noah Kramer (1959). Anchor Paperback. Doubleday Anchor Books.
- Samuel Noah Kramer (1969). Cradle of Civilization. Little Brown & Co. ISBN 0-316-32617-8.
- Georg Feuerstein (2001). In Search of the Cradle of Civilization. Quest Books. ISBN 0-8356-0741-0.
- Ethel Hofflund (2001). The Cradle of Civilization (Lifepac History & Geography Grade 6). Alpha Omega Publications. ISBN 0-86717-552-4.