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Mother Goddess;<br/>Goddess of Energy and Protection {{cn}}<br/>
Supreme Being in [[Shaktism]] and [[Shaivism]]<br/>
[[Para Brahman]], the Supreme Being<ref name="Durga">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/events/navratri-2019-what-are-the-nine-forms-of-maa-durga-and-the-special-prasad-offered-to-them/articleshow/71335962.cms|title=Who is Goddess Durga?|access-date=2022-07-14|website=Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
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Revision as of 10:10, 24 July 2022
Durga | |
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Mother Goddess; Goddess of Energy and Protection [citation needed] Supreme Being in Shaktism and Shaivism | |
Member of Pancha Prakriti[2] | |
18th-century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon Mahishasura | |
Other names | Mahishasura Mardini, Amba, Jagdamba, Jagat Janani, Bhavani, Bhagwati, Mata Rani, Uma, Durge, Sheranwali, Ambika, Devi Maa, Triyambake, Adi Shakti, Mahamaya |
Devanagari | दुर्गा |
Affiliation | |
Abode | Manidvipa |
Mantra |
|
Weapon | Chakra (discus), Shankha (conch shell), Trishula (trident), Gada (mace), Bow and Arrow, Khanda (sword) and Shield, Ghanta (bell) |
Mount | Lion and Tiger[4][5] |
Texts | Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Devi Mahatmya, Kalika Purana, Shakta Upanishads, Tantras, Shiva Purana and Devi Upanishad |
Festivals | Durga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Navaratri, Vijayadashami, Kali Puja, Lakshmi Puja, Diwali, Adi-Puram |
Genealogy | |
Siblings | Vishnu (ceremonial brother)[a] |
Consort | Shiva (according to Shaivism) |
Equivalents | |
Manipuri equivalent | Panthoibi[6] |
Translations of दुर्गा (Durgā) | |
---|---|
Sanskrit | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Assamese | দুর্গা (Durgā) |
Bengali | দুর্গা (Durgā) |
Hindi | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Malayalam | ദുർഗ (Durga) |
Marathi | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Odia | ଦୁର୍ଗା (Durgā) |
Punjabi | ਦੁਰਗਾ (Durgā) |
Tamil | துர்க்கை (Durgai) |
Telugu | దుర్గ (Durgā) |
Gujarati | દુર્ગા (Durgā) |
Glossary of Hinduism terms |
Durga (Sanskrit: दुर्गा, IAST: Durgā) also significantly known as Mata Rani and Devi Maa is a major deity and supreme divinity in Hinduism. She is worshipped as a principal aspect of supreme mother goddess Adi Shakti and is also one of the most popular and widely revered among Indian divinities. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction and wars.[7][8][9] According to Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, she is a warrior, powerful and much worshipped form of Mahadevi, the energy referred to as all riches and whole universe creation.[10][11] Her legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and Dharma the power of good over evil.[8][12] Durga is believed to unleash her divine wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed, and entails destruction to empower creation.[13] Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful woman, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating demons.[5][14][15][16] She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess centric sect, Shaktism, and has importance in other denominations like Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Under these traditions, Durga is associated and identified with other deities. Devotees of Goddess Durga often recite Srimad Devi Bhagavatam and Saptashloki Durga Saptashati to seek her blessings.[12][17]
The two most important texts of Shaktism, Devi Mahatmya and Devi-Bhagavat reveres Devi or Shakti (goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the Brahman (ultimate truth and reality).[18][19][20] While all major texts of Hinduism mention and revere the goddess, these two texts center around her as the primary divinity. She is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.[21][22]
Durga has a significant following all over India, Bangladesh, Nepal and many other countries. She is mostly worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of Durga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Vijayadashami, Diwali and Navaratri.[23][24]
Etymology and nomenclature
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The word Durga (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",[7][23] "invincible, unassailable".[25] It is related to the word Durg (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur (difficult) and gam (pass, go through).[26] According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means "beyond defeat".[27]
The word Durga and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda.[26][28][note 1] A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[26] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature.[30]
The word is also found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata and section 4.27.16 of the Ramayana.[26] These usages are in different contexts. For example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska.[26] Durga as a demon-slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE.[31][32][33] The Devi Mahatmya and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting and adapting in nature, form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends, while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.[34][35][note 2]
There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and her nine appellations are (Navadurga): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kaalratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".
Other meanings may include: "the one who cannot be accessed easily",[26] "the undefeatable goddess".[27]
One famous shloka states the definition and origin of the term 'Durga': "Durge durgati nashini", meaning Durga is the one who destroys all distress or one who eliminates suffering.[37]
History and texts
Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the Indus Valley civilization. According to Asko Parpola, a cylindrical seal from Kalibangan shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".[38][39]
Reverence for Devi, the feminine nature of God, first appears in the 10th Maṇḍala of Rig Veda, one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):[40][41]
I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.
They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome.
I make the man I love exceedingly mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra, that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother.
Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body.
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Durga_slaying_buffalo_composite%2C_2nd-century_to_13th-century_Devi_Mahatmya.png/220px-Durga_slaying_buffalo_composite%2C_2nd-century_to_13th-century_Devi_Mahatmya.png)
Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in Upanishadic literature, such as Kali in verse 1.2.4 of the Mundaka Upanishad dated to about the 5th century BCE.[43] This single mention describes Kali as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal Brahman.[44]
Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.[45] Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.[43] She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.[45] Various Puranas from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent mythologies associated with Durga.[43] Of these, the Markandeya Purana and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana are the most significant texts on Durga.[46][47] The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads, mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to Durga as Devi and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the Brahman and Atman (self, soul).[48][49]
In the Narada Purana, Durga is associated as a form of Lakshmi.[50] In the Garuda Purana and the Vishnu Purana, Lakshmi is considered Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga.[51] In Pancharatra texts such as the Lakshmi Tantra, Lakshmi has Durga as one of her forms and acquires the name Durga after killing the demon Durgamasura.[52][53][54] These texts identify Durga as Vishnu's māyā".[55]
Origins
The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "syncretism of a mountain-goddess worshiped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas", a deity of the Abhiras conceptualised as a war-goddess. In the Virata Parvan stuti and Visnuite texts, the Goddess is called the Māhāmāyā, or the Yoganidrā of Vishnu. These further points her Abhira or Gopa origins.[56] Durga then transformed into Kali as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy (Adya Sakti) integrated into the samsara (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.[57] There are total of nine avatars of Goddess Durga in Hinduism.[58]
Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the Maukhari era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).[59]
European traders and colonial era references
Some early European accounts refer to a deity known as Deumus, Demus or Deumo. Western (Portuguese) sailors first came face to face with the murti of Deumus at Calicut on the Malabar Coast and they concluded it to be the deity of Calicut. Deumus is sometimes interpreted as an aspect of Durga in Hindu mythology and sometimes as deva. It is described that the ruler of Calicut (Zamorin) had a murti of Deumus in his temple inside his royal palace.[60]
Legends
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Durga_in_Combat_with_the_Bull%2C_Mahishasura_-_69.428_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg/220px-Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Durga_in_Combat_with_the_Bull%2C_Mahishasura_-_69.428_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg)
The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of Mahishasura. Mahishasura was a half-buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please Brahma, the creator. After several years, Brahma, pleased with his devotion, appeared before him. The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality. Brahma refused, stating that all must die one day. Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him. Brahma granted the boon and disappeared. Mahishasura started to torture innocent people. He captured heaven and was not in any kind of fear, as he thought women to be powerless and weak. The devas were worried and they went to Trimurti. The trimurti then together combined their power and created a warrior woman with many arms. The devas gave her a copy of their weapons. Himavan, the lord of Himalayas, gifted a lion as her mount. Durga on her lion, appeared before Mahishasura where she came into her supreme divine form when she remembered of herself being the principal and primordial aspect of Adi Shakti. Mahishasura took on different forms and attacked the goddess. Each time, Durga would destroy his forms. At last, Durga slayed Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon.[61][62]
Attributes and iconography
Durga has been a warrior goddess, and she is depicted to express her martial skills. Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes, where she rides a lion or a tiger,[4] has between eight and eighteen hands, each holding a weapon to destroy and create.[63][64] She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura, the buffalo demon, at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force. Her icon shows her in action, yet her face is calm and serene.[65][66] In Hindu arts, this tranquil attribute of Durga's face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred, egotism or getting pleasure in violence, but because she acts out of necessity, for the love of the good, for liberation of those who depend on her, and a mark of the beginning of soul's journey to creative freedom.[66][67][68]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Durga_2005.jpg/170px-Durga_2005.jpg)
Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is the shakti (energy, power).[69] These include chakra, conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, trishul, shield, and a noose.[70] These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.[71] She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.[72] Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.[72]
Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.[73] Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of Mahavidyas or Saptamatrkas (seven mothers considered forms of Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in Varanasi include relief artworks that show scenes from the Devi Mahatmya.[74]
In Vaishnavism, Durga whose mount is Lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Goddess Lakshmi, the other two being Sri and Bhu.[75] According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord Vishnu created the gunas of prakriti, there arose Lakshmi in her three forms, Sri, Bhu and Durga. Sri consisted of sattva, Bhu as rajas and Durga as tamas".[76]
Durga appears in Hindu mythology in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.[77] While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons, are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs (yantra) to remember and revere what she symbolises.[78]
Worship and festivals
Durga is worshipped in Hindu temples across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus. Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of Indian subcontinent during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.[5][23][79]
Durga puja
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/A_Durga_festival_collage.jpg/280px-A_Durga_festival_collage.jpg)
As per the Markandeya Purana, Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long Durga Puja is a major annual festival in Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand and Bihar.[5][23] It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of Ashvina,[80] and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay,[81] recitations of Devi Mahatmya text,[80] prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.[5][82][83]
The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as Vijayadashami (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or Dussehra (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".[84]
This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.[82] The 11th or 12th century Jainism text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.[80]
The prominence of Durga puja increased during the British Raj in Bengal.[85] After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the Indian independence movement.[citation needed]The city of Kolkata is famous for Durga puja.
Dashain
In Nepal, the festival dedicated to Durga is called Dashain (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".[79] Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in Sikkim and Bhutan. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms (Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri, Mahakali and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.[79]
During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as Navadurga are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is occasionally worshiped as celibate goddess, but the Shaktism traditions includes the worship of Shiva along with Durga, who consider her as his consort, in addition to Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya, who are considered to be Durga's children by Shaktas.[86][87] Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as Mother Nature. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga.
Other cultures
In Bangladesh, the four-day-long Sharadiya Durga Puja is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with Vijayadashami being a national holiday. In Sri Lanka, Durga in the form of Vaishnavi, bearing Vishnu's iconographic symbolism is celebrated. This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora.[88]
In Buddhism
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Palden_Lhamo%2C_Tawang_Monastery.jpg/170px-Palden_Lhamo%2C_Tawang_Monastery.jpg)
According to scholars, over its history, Buddhist Tantric traditions have adopted several Hindu deities into its fold.[90][91][92] The Tantric traditions of Buddhism included Durga and developed the idea further.[93] In Japanese Buddhism, she appears as Butsu-mo (sometimes called Koti-sri).[94] In Tibet, the goddess Palden Lhamo is similar to the protective and fierce Durga.[95][89] Several aspects of Tārā is believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga, notably her fierce guardian form.[96]
In Jainism
The Sacciya mata found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga, and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage.[97] In the Ellora Caves, the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount. However, she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave, but she is presented as a peaceful deity.[98]
In Sikhism
Durga is exalted as the divine in Dasam Granth, a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[99] According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".[99]
Outside Indian subcontinent
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/3_Hindu_goddess_Durga_in_Southeast_Asia.jpg/280px-3_Hindu_goddess_Durga_in_Southeast_Asia.jpg)
Archeological site excavations in Indonesia, particularly on the island of Java, have yielded numerous statues of Durga. These have been dated to be from 6th century onwards.[100] Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands, at least 135 statues are of Durga.[101] In parts of Java, she is known as Loro Jonggrang (literally, "slender maiden").[102]
In Cambodia, during its era of Hindu kings, Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found. However, most differ from the Indian representation in one detail. The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head.[103]
Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archaeological sites in Vietnam, likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era.[104][105]
Influence
Durga is a major goddess in Hinduism, and the inspiration of Durga Puja – a large annual festival particularly in the eastern and northeastern states of India.[106]
One of the devotees of her form as Kali was Sri Ramakrishna who was the guru of Swami Vivekananda. He is the founder of the Ramakrishna Mission.
Durga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song Vande Mataram, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, during Indian independence movement, later the official national song of India. Durga is present in Indian nationalism where Bharat Mata i.e. Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga. This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians. She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like Jai Santoshi Maa. The Indian Army uses phrases like "Durga Mata ki Jai!" and "Kaali Mata ki Jai!". Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her.[107][108]
Notes
- ^ According to the sect of Shaivism in Hinduism, Durga and Parvati are considered the same. So, goddess Durga owns the same family or personal information of Parvati. However, Shaktism sect claims the mother goddess Durga or Adi Shakti as supreme. While, all deities and their forms are considered to be the aspect of one supreme energy which is Brahman.
- ^ It appears in Khila (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.[29]
- ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.[36]
References
- ^ "Who is Goddess Durga?". Times of India. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
- ^ "Names and Qualities of Panch Prakritiya Goddesses CCNQ113979 - PG 11". Sanatan Lok. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "Dharm News Article by Punjab Kesari". Punjab Kesari (in Hindi). 9 April 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
- ^ a b Robert S Ellwood & Gregory D Alles 2007, p. 126.
- ^ a b c d e Wendy Doniger 1999, p. 306.
- ^ Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1998). "Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy".
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica 2015.
- ^ a b David R Kinsley 1989, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Charles Phillips, Michael Kerrigan & David Gould 2011, pp. 93–94.
- ^ "Facts about Maa Durga". Times of India. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
- ^ Vijnanananda (2007). Simad Devi Bhagavatam. MUNSHIRAM MANOHARLAL PUBLISHERS PVT LTD. p. 797. ISBN 9788121505918.
- ^ a b Paul Reid-Bowen 2012, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 3–5.
- ^ David R Kinsley 1989, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2011, pp. 71–73.
- ^ Donald J LaRocca 1996, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Lynn Foulston & Stuart Abbott 2009, pp. 9–17.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 215–216.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, p. xi.
- ^ Flood 1996, pp. 17, 153.
- ^ "Panch Dev Puja Worship". ABP (in Hindi). Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ a b c d James G Lochtefeld 2002, p. 208.
- ^ Constance Jones & James D Ryan 2006, pp. 139–140, 308–309.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, p. xxii.
- ^ a b c d e f Monier Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 487
- ^ a b Alain Daniélou 1991, p. 21.
- ^ Maurice Bloomfield (1906), A Vedic concordance, Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;
Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके । दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत् ॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource - ^ J Scheftelowitz (1906). Indische Forschungen. Verlag von M & H Marcus. pp. 112 line 13a.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998, p. 77 note 28.
- ^ Thomas B. Coburn 1991, pp. 13.
- ^ Thomas B. Coburn 2002, pp. 1–7.
- ^ Alain Daniélou 1991, p. 288.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 215–219.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 20–21, 217–219.
- ^ "Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good". The Times of India. 9 August 2019. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
- ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (1988). The Cult of Draupadi, Volume 2: On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess. University of Chicago Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-226-34048-7.
- ^ Thapar, Valmik (1997). Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent. University of California Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-520-21470-5.
- ^ a b June McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
- ^ a b Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998, p. 26.
- ^ The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125 Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५
- ^ a b c Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Mundaka Upanishad, Robert Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 368–377 with verse 1.2.4
- ^ a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, p. 162.
- ^ Ludo Rocher 1986, pp. 168–172, 191–193.
- ^ C Mackenzie Brown 1990, pp. 44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60.
- ^ Douglas Renfrew Brooks 1992, pp. 76–80.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 89–91.
- ^ Chitralekha Singh; Prem Nath (2001). Lakshmi. Crest Publishing House. p. 20. ISBN 9788124201732.
- ^ Tracy Pintchman (21 June 2001). Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess. SUNY Press. p. 82. ISBN 9780791450079.
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- ^ S. Rangachar (1991). Philosophy of Pancaratras. Sridevi Prakashana. p. 94.
- ^ Upendra Nath Dhal (1978). Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p. 195.
Like the Devi Māhātmya , the Lakşmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Lakşmi thus : During the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu) for the destruction of the demon Mahisa, Mahālakṣmi appeared Mahişāmardini.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, p. 104.
- ^ Aiyar, Indira S. (1997). Durga As Mahisasuramardini. Gyan Publishing House, 1997. p. 217. ISBN 9788121205108.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, p. 214.
- ^ Sharma, Bhavna (n.d.). "Nine avatars of Goddess Durga". Swapn Duniya. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
- ^ Richard Salomon (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–201. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3.
- ^ Jörg Breu d. Ä. zugeschrieben, Idol von Calicut, in: Ludovico de Varthema, 'Die Ritterlich und lobwürdig Reisz', Strassburg 1516. (Bild: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich
- ^ Roa, Subba (April 1971). Tales of Durga. Amar Chitra Katha Private Limited. p. 25. ISBN 81-89999-35-4.
- ^ Kumar, Anu (30 November 2012). Mahishasura: The Buffalo Demon. Hachette India. ISBN 978-93-5009-538-6.
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- ^ Donald J LaRocca 1996, pp. 5–7.
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- ^ Charles Russell Coulter & Patricia Turner 2013, p. 158.
- ^ Linda Johnsen (2002). The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe. Yes International Publishers. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-936663-28-9.
- ^ a b Alf Hiltebeitel; Kathleen M. Erndl (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-8147-3619-7.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 95–105.
- ^ David Kinsley 1997, pp. 30–35, 60, 16–22, 149.
- ^ Isaeva 1993, p. 252.
- ^ Pintchman 2014, p. 82.
- ^ Patricia Monaghan 2011, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Patricia Monaghan 2011, pp. 73–78.
- ^ a b c J Gordon Melton (2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 239–241. ISBN 978-1-59884-206-7.
- ^ a b c David Kinsley 1998, pp. 106–108.
- ^ David Kinsley 1997, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, pp. 172–174.
- ^ Lynn Foulston & Stuart Abbott 2009, pp. 162–169.
- ^ Esposito, John L.; Darrell J Fasching; Todd Vernon Lewis (2007). Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-19-517695-7.
- ^ "Article on Durga Puja". Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
- ^ Bruce M. Sullivan (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 72. ISBN 9780810840706.
Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her, but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva, depending on tradition.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, p. 95.
- ^ Joanne Punzo Waghorne (2004). Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World. Oxford University Press. pp. 222–224. ISBN 978-0-19-803557-2.
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- ^ Wayman, Alex; The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism, Routledge, (2008), page 23.
- ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
- ^ Hajime Nakamura (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 315. ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8.
- ^ Shoko Watanabe (1955), On Durga and Tantric Buddhism, Chizan Gakuho, number 18, pages 36-44
- ^ Louis-Frédéric (1995). Buddhism. Flammarion. p. 174. ISBN 978-2-08-013558-2.
- ^ Bernard Faure (2009). The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender. Princeton University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-1400825615.
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- ^ John N. Miksic (2007). Icons of Art: The Collections of the National Museum of Indonesia. BAB Pub. Indonesia. pp. 106, 224–238. ISBN 978-979-8926-25-9.
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- ^ Roy E Jordaan; Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1996). In praise of Prambanan: Dutch essays on the Loro Jonggrang temple complex. KITLV Press. pp. 147–149. ISBN 978-90-6718-105-1.
- ^ Trudy Jacobsen (2008). Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press. pp. 20–21 with figure 2.2. ISBN 978-87-7694-001-0.
- ^ Heidi Tan (2008). Vietnam: from myth to modernity. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum. pp. 56, 62–63. ISBN 978-981-07-0012-6.
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- ^ "Durga Puja – Hindu festival". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2015.
- ^ Sabyasachi Bhattacharya (2003). Vande Mataram, the Biography of a Song. Penguin. pp. 5, 90–99. ISBN 978-0-14-303055-3.
- ^ Sumathi Ramaswamy (2009). The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India. Duke University Press. pp. 106–108. ISBN 978-0-8223-9153-1.
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External links
- Durga Battling the Buffalo Demon: Iconography, Carlos Museum, Emory University
- Devi Durga, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution
- Overview Of World Religions – Devotion to Durga