Rueben lys (talk | contribs) |
m Updated the flag with a new, more accurate digitalisation of the flag adopted by the Indian National Congress (and thusly used by the Indian National Army). Created based off of images of official flags used from the period. |
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{{Short description|Army of mostly Indian POWs of Japan in WW2}} |
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{{Infobox Military Unit |
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{{about|the second Indian National Army under Subhash Chandra Bose|the organisation under [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]] |First Indian National Army|the modern Indian military|Indian Armed Forces|the army of the British Raj|British Indian Army|the regiment raised in Germany|Free India Legion}} |
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|unit_name=Indian National Army |
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{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}} |
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|image= [[image:AzadHindFlag.png|150px]] |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}} |
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|caption= The ensign of [[Azad Hind]] |
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{{Infobox military unit |
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|dates= August 1942- September 1945 |
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| unit_name = Indian National Army |
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|country=India |
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| native_name = ''Azad Hind Fauj'' |
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| image = Flag of the Indian National Congress c.1931 - SVG.svg |
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|branch= Infantry |
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| image_size = |
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|role= Infantry |
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| caption = Flag of [[Azad Hind]] |
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|size= |
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| dates = August 1942 – September 1945 |
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|commanders= |
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| country = {{flag|Azad Hind}} ([[puppet state]] of Japanese empire) |
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|ceremonial_chief= [[Subhash Chandra Bose]] |
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| allegiance = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Empire of Japan]] |
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|patron= |
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| role = {{nowrap|[[Guerrilla]], [[infantry]], [[special operations]]}} |
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|colors= |
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| size = ~43,000 Soldiers: [[Gandhi Brigade (regiment)|Gandhi Brigade]], [[Nehru Brigade]], [[Azad Brigade]], [[Subhas Brigade]], [[Rani of Jhansi regiment]] |
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|identification_symbol= The ensign of the springing [[Tiger]] |
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| commander1 = [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]] <small>(1942)</small><br/>[[Subhas Chandra Bose]] <small>(1943–1945)</small> |
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|battles= [[Battle of Imphal]], [[Burma Campaign|Battle of Kohima]] |
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| commander1_label = Commander-in-Chief |
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|notable_commanders= [[Shaukat Malik]], [[Lakshmi Sehgal]]. |
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| commander2 = [[Jaganath Rao Bhonsle]] |
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|decorations= |
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| commander2_label = Chief of Staff |
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| notable_commanders = [[Mohammed Zaman Kiani]]<br/>[[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Shah Nawaz Khan]]<br/>[[Prem Sahgal]] |
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| motto = ''Ittehad, Itmad aur Qurbani''<br/>{{nowrap|([[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]: Unity, Faith and Sacrifice)}} |
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| march = ''[[Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja]]'' |
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| battles = [[World War II]] |
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*[[Burma Campaign]] |
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**[[Battle of Ngakyedauk]] |
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**[[Battle of Imphal]] |
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**[[Battle of Pokoku]] |
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**[[Battle of Central Burma]] |
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}} |
}} |
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[[File:Monument of INA Martyrs at Kolkata.jpg|thumb|300px|[[INA Martyrs' Memorial|Monument of INA Martyrs]] at Kolkata]] |
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The '''Indian National Army''' ('''INA'''; ''Azad Hind Fauj'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|z|ɑː|ð|_|ˈ|h|i|n|ð|_|ˈ|f|ɔː|dʒ}}; {{Literally}} 'Free Indian Army') was a [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan|collaborationist armed unit]] of Indian collaborators that fought under the command of the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cold War and the New Imperialism: A Global History, 1945–2005|page=87|author=Henry Heller|quote=By 1943 Bose had organized the 40,000 - strong Indian National Army, a force based in Malaya and commanded by the Japanese|publisher=[[Monthly Press]]|year=2006}}</ref> It was founded by [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]] on September 1942 in [[Southeast Asia]] during [[World War II]]. |
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It fought under the command of the Japanese military in the British campaign in the [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|Southeast Asian theatre of WWII]], with its aim to secure [[Indian Independence movement|Indian independence]] from [[British Raj|British rule]].<ref name="Fayviiii">{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=viii}}</ref> The army was [[First Indian National Army|first formed]] in 1942 under Mohan Singh by Indian [[prisoners of war]] (PoWs) of the [[British Indian Army]] captured by Japan in the [[Malayan campaign]] and [[Battle of Singapore|at Singapore]].<ref name="Ray 1984 p. ">{{cite book | last=Ray | first=N.R. | title=Challenge, a Saga of India's Struggle for Freedom | publisher=People's Publishing House | year=1984 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_SVuAAAAMAAJ | page=586}}</ref><ref name="Ghosh 2006 p. ">{{cite book | last=Ghosh | first=R. | title=Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and Indian Freedom Struggle (Set in 2 Vols.) | publisher=Deep & Deep Publications | year=2006 | isbn=978-81-7629-842-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3MwAQAAIAAJ | page=32}}</ref><ref name=Lebraviiitox>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|loc=Foreword, pp. viii–x}}</ref> This first INA, which had been handed over to Rash Behari Bose and Mohan Singh, collapsed and was disbanded in December that year after differences between its leadership and the Japanese military over its role in Japan's war in Asia. The INA was handed over to [[Subhas Chandra Bose]].<ref name=Lebra2008p99/> It was revived under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose after his arrival in Southeast Asia in 1943. The army was declared to be the army of Bose's ''[[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]]'' (the Provisional Government of Free India). The INA came to be known as the puppet army of the Japanese empire.<ref name="Seaman">{{cite book | last=Seaman | first=Harry | title=The Battle At Sangshak: Prelude to Kohima | publisher=L. Cooper | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-85052-720-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8yXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 | quote=puppet army composed of Indian prisoners of war | page=23}}</ref><ref name="Tanaka">{{cite book | author=[[Yuki Tanaka (historian)|Yuki Tanaka]] | title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | series=Asian Voices | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-5381-0270-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCkzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 | quote=a puppet army under Japanese control | page=215}}</ref> |
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The '''Indian National Army''' (INA) or '''Azad Hind Fauj''' was the army of the [[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]] (The Provisional Government of Free India) which fought along with the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese 15th Army]] during the Japanese Campaign in Burma, and in the [[Battle of Imphal]], during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. It consisted mostly of [[India]]n [[prisoners of war]] who, in the course of service in the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]], had been captured by [[Axis powers|Axis forces]], although a significant portion were recruited from Indian civilians in Japanese-controlled [[Malaya]] and [[Burma]]. |
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Subhas Chandra Bose named the brigades/regiments of INA after [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Maulana Azad]], and himself.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/news-analysis/story/subhas-chandra-bose-mahatma-gandhi-nehru-admirers-or-adversaries-myth-buster-1639417-2020-01-23|title=Subhas Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru: Admirers or adversaries? A myth buster}}</ref> There was also an all-women regiment named after [[Rani of Jhansi]], Lakshmibai. Under Bose's leadership, the INA drew ex-prisoners and thousands of civilian volunteers from the [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian expatriate]] population in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (present-day Malaysia) and [[Burma]].<ref name=Lebrapxv>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=xv}}</ref> This second INA fought under the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] against the British and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces in the [[Burma campaign|campaigns in Burma]]: [[Battle of Imphal|at Imphal]] and [[Battle of Kohima|Kohima]], and later against the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Burma campaign 1944–45|retaking of Burma]].<ref name=Fayp283and284/><ref name=Fayp330>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=330}}</ref> |
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==Background== |
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Within the [[Indian independence movement]], the origins of the concept of an armed force fighting its way into India to overthrow the Raj goes back to the [[First World War]], when the [[Ghadar Party]] in February [[1915]] planned to [[Kartar Singh Sarabha#Revolt in the Punjab|intiate rebellion]] in the British Indian Army from the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] through [[Bengal]] to [[Hong Kong]] with German assistance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dignan|1983|p=}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kaushik|1984|p=}}</ref> This plan failed after the information was leaked to British Intelligence, but only after the Hong Kong Garrison had rebelled. Further German assistance in the form of arms, ammunitons and trained cadres (both European and Indian) came too late to make a difference.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dignan|1983|p=}}</ref> |
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During the [[Second World War]], this plan found revival, with a number of different leaders, units and movements formed over the duration of the war. These included "liberation armies" formed in and with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Local movements also formed within India which [[guerrilla]] tactics and significantly hindered the British war effort by [[sabotage]], [[civil unrest]] and [[propaganda]]. |
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The south-east asian theatre saw the concept of the Indian National Army intiated by the Indian Independence League, which came to be acted out in two phases: the formation and subsequent disbandment of the Indian National Army under Capt. [[Mohan Singh Deb]], and the formation of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind under [[Subhash Chandra Bose]] and the reformation of the INA as its army. The concept of INA as the Azad Hind Fauj that lives in Indian Public Memory, and indeed as it is analysed by historians, as a fighting force is essentially the INA as the army of the Azad Hind Government under Netaji Subhash Bose. Both these phases saw extensive support from the Japanese Government, militarily as well as politically. |
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After the INA's initial formation in 1942, there was concern in the British Indian Army that further Indian troops would defect. This led to a reporting ban and a propaganda campaign called "[[Jiffs]]" to preserve the loyalty of the [[Sepoy]].<ref name=Fayp423>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=423}}</ref> Historians consider the INA not to have had significant influence on the war.<ref name=Fay138/> |
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==Japan and Indian Nationalism== |
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[[India]] and [[Japan]], especially from the last decade of the [[19th century]], had enjoyed a growing exchange of cultural, religious and philosophical ideas. India, as the home of [[Hinduism]], the birthplace of the [[Buddha]], and from the second decade of the 20th century, the home of [[Gandhian philosophy]], had been an attraction for Japanese and [[Buddhist]] and literary fugures.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=21}}</ref> India, in the meantime, looked to Japan as an inspiration of a model industrialised, advancing [[Asian]] society and nationhood. The [[Russo-Japanese War|Japanese victory over Russia]] in [[1905]] had furthered the inspiration Japan infused, especially among Indian nationalists.<ref>{{Harvnb|Friedman|1940|p=18}}</ref> Noted Indian and Japanese cultural figures, including [[Okakura Kakuzō|Okakura Tenshin]] and [[Rabindranath Tagore]] acnowledged the connection of the two Asian nations, their heritage, and the vision of pan-Asianism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=22}}</ref> |
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The [[British Raj]], never seriously threatened by the INA, charged 300 INA officers with treason in the [[INA trials]], but eventually backtracked in the face of opposition by the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moreman|first=Tim|title=The Jungle, Japanese and the British Commonwealth Armies at War, 1941–45: Fighting Methods, Doctrine and Training for Jungle Warfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bsoy_-Ep_0EC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-76456-2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Marston2014|pp=130–132}}: "Many Indian Army POWs were perplexed by Congress's sudden support for the INA"</ref> These trials became a galvanising point in the Indian Independence movement for the Indian National Congress.{{sfn|Singh|2003|p=98}}<ref name=Sarkar420>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=420}}</ref> A number of people associated with the INA during the war later went on to hold important roles in public life in India as well as in other countries in Southeast Asia, most notably [[Lakshmi Sehgal]] in India, and [[John Thivy]] and [[Janaki Athinahappan]] in Malaya.<ref name=Lebra2008p219/> |
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After the end of the [[Great War]], Japan increasingly became a haven for radical Indian nationalists in exile,who were protected by patriotic Japanese societies. Notable among these included [[Rash Behari Bose]], [[Taraknath Das]], [[A M Sahay]] as well as others. The protections offered to these nationalists effectively prevented British efforts to repatriate them and became a major policy concern.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dignan|1983|p= }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1986|p=421}}</ref> |
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The military unit was associated with Imperial Japan and the other Axis powers, and accusations were levelled against INA troops of being involved and complicit in [[Japanese war crimes]].<ref name=Fay423to424>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=423–424,453}}</ref> The INA's members were viewed as [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan|Axis collaborators]] and traitors by British soldiers and Indian PoWs who did not join the army,<ref name=Toye1959pxiv/> but after the war they were seen as patriots by many Indians.<ref name=Toye1959pxiv>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=Mason, in Foreword, p. xiv}}</ref> Although they were widely commemorated by the [[Indian National Congress]] in the immediate aftermath of Indian independence, some of the members of the INA were denied [[freedom fighter]] status by the Government of India.<ref name=Cohenp132>{{Harvnb|Cohen|1971|p=132}}</ref><ref name=Lebrapxv/><ref name=Toye1959pxiv/><ref name=Fayp228>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=228}}</ref> |
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By the end of the war however, the pan-asiatic vision gradually moved away from prominence as the [[Indian Independence movement|independence movement in India]] became engrossed in agitations on immediate issues of post-war India. These included agitations against the [[Rowlatt act]], the [[Khilafat Movement]] against the [[Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|suspension of the authority]] of the [[Caliph]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] (an inflammatory issue among India's huge muslim population), as well as the home rule agitations that was heralded by [[Gandhi]]'s [[Non-cooperation movement]] in [[1922]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Friedman|1940|p=18}}</ref> By the time that the pan-asiatic regained any prominence, the highground that Japan held among the Indian population and especially Indian nationalist leadership had fallen, owed to a large extent to her aggressive and often nihillistic |
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[[Second Sino-Japanese War#Invasion of China|policy in China]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Friedman|1940|p=18}}</ref> |
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==Second World War and Indian armed resistance== |
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With the onset of the [[World War II|Second World War]], all the three major [[Axis Powers]], at some stage of their campaign against Britain, sought to support and exploit the armed revolutionary activities within India and aided the recruitment of a military force from disaffected Indian prisoners-of war captured while serving with the [[Allies of World War II#The British Commonwealth|British Commonwealth forces]] and Indian expatriates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hauner|1981|p=Part I}}</ref> |
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===Italy=== |
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{{Main|Battaglione Azad Hindoustan}} |
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Italy had in [[1942]] created the '''[[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]]''', with ex-Indian Army personnel and Italians previously resident in India and Persia, that ultimately served under Ragruppamento Centri Militari.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lundari|1940|p=90}}</ref>However, these efforts proved unsuccessful, given the overtly propagandist nature of their efforts that ultimately found little acceptance among the constituent soldiers, and the lack of a leadership that would deemed legitimate by the troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lundari|1940|p=90}}</ref> By November 1942, following the defeats in [[El Alamein]], the Italian efforts had failed. |
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== |
==First INA== |
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{{Main|First Indian National Army|Bidadary resolutions}} |
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{{Main|Legion Freies Indien}} |
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{{See also|Mohan Singh|I Fujiwara|Rash Behari Bose|Indian Independence League|Thirty Comrades}} |
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German motives and intentions with relaton to India were complex.While the German Foreign office is said to have wanted to support Indian revolutionaries and nationalists, there is consensus that ultimately, [[Hitler]] held the belief that the [[Aryan]] British had to rule over the unfit Indian masses.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hauner|1981|p=Part I}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Cohen|1983|p=351}}</ref> |
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[[File:Fujiwara Kikan.jpg|right|299x299px|thumb|Major [[Iwaichi Fujiwara]] greets [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]]. ''Circa'' April 1942.]] |
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Subhash Chandra Bose, with his [[Subhash Chandra Bose#The_Escape|arrival]] in Germany in April 1941 however, was able to convince Hitler (with whom he had one meeting) and the Nazi highcommand to raise an Indian unit from [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]]'s Indian [[prisoners of war]] from the battle fields of Europe and Africa,according to the concept of an Indian Liberation force.<ref>{{Harvnb|Axis War Makes Easier Task of Indians. Chandra Bose's Berlin Speech. Syonan Sinbun, 26 January 1943. Syonan Sinbun.|1943|p=}}</ref> The Indische legion was tasked both as a pathfinder for a German/Indian invasion of the western frontiers of [[British India]], as well as to infiltrate into India to forment local revolt and sabotage operations. However, the Free India Legion only ever saw action in Europe, fighting as a Heer unit attached to the [[Wehrmacht]] and later incorporated into [[Waffen SS]] (as were other national legions of the Wehrmacht) after the [[Battle of Normandy|Allied Invasion of France]]. Only a small contingent ever was put into its original intended purpose when a hundred of the Legionnaires were parachuted into [[Brandenburgers#Operation Bajadere|eastern Iran]] in what came to be known as Operation Bajadere, to infiltrate into India through [[Baluchistan]] and commence [[sabotage]] operations against the British in preparation for the anticipated national revolt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Littlejohn|1987|p=137-138}}</ref> A majority of the troops of the Free India Legion were only ever stationed in Europe -mostly in non-combat duties- from [[Netherlands]], to [[Atlantic Wall]] duties in France till the [[Battle of Normandy|Allied invasion of France]]. A small contingent, including the leadership and the officer corps, was also transferred to [[Azad Hind]] after its formation and saw action in the INA’s Burma Campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kurowski|1997|p=137}}</ref> A segment of the Free India Legion fought against British and Polish Forces in Italy in 1944.<ref>{{Harvnb|Munoz|2002|p=}}</ref> |
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Before the start of World War II, Japan and South-East Asia were major refuges for exiled Indian nationalists. Meanwhile, Japan had [[F Kikan|sent intelligence missions]], notably under [[Major (rank)|Maj.]] [[Iwaichi Fujiwara]], into South Asia to gather support from the Malayan sultans, overseas Chinese, the Burmese resistance and the [[Indian independence movement]]. The Minami Kikan successfully recruited [[Thirty Comrades|Burmese nationalists]], while the F Kikan was successful in establishing contacts with Indian nationalists in exile in [[Thailand]] and [[British Malaya|Malaya]].<ref name="Lebra 1977 23">{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=23}}</ref><ref name="Lebra 1977 24"/> Fujiwara, later self-described as "Lawrence of the Indian National Army" (after [[Lawrence of Arabia]]) is said to have been a man committed to the values which his office was supposed to convey to the expatriate nationalist leaders, and found acceptance among them.<ref name="Lebra 1977 24">{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref><ref name="Fay 1993 75">{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref> His initial contact was with [[Giani Pritam Singh]] and the [[Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge]].<ref name="Lebra 1977 24"/> |
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[[Image:Subhas Bose.jpg|thumb|150px|Netaji [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] in full military uniform]] |
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At the outbreak of World War II [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|in South-East Asia]], 70,000 Indian troops (mostly [[Sikhs]]) were stationed in Malaya. In Japan's spectacular [[Malayan Campaign]] many Indian prisoners-of-war were captured, including nearly 45,000 after the [[Battle of Singapore|fall of Singapore]] alone.<ref name=Toye2007p4>{{Harvnb|Toye|2007|p=4}}</ref> The conditions of service within the British-Indian Army and the social conditions in Malaya had led to dissension among these troops.<ref name=Faye56and224and226>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=56, 224, 226}}</ref><ref name=Toye30>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=30}}</ref> From these prisoners, the [[First Indian National Army]] was formed under [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]]. Singh was an officer in the British-Indian Army who was captured early in the Malayan campaign. His nationalist sympathies found an ally in Fujiwara and he received considerable Japanese aid and support.<ref name=Toye7and8>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=7,8}}</ref> Ethnic Indians in Southeast Asia also supported the cause of Indian independence and had formed local leagues in Malaya before the war. These came together with encouragement from Japan after the occupation, forming the [[Indian Independence League]] (IIL).<ref name=Fay91and108>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=91, 108}}</ref> |
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Although there were a number of prominent local Indians working in the IIL, the overall leadership came to rest with [[Rash Behari Bose]], an Indian revolutionary who had lived in self-exile in Japan since World War I.<ref name=Faye108>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=108}}</ref> The League and INA leadership decided that the INA was to be subordinate to the IIL. A working council – composed of prominent members of the League and the INA leaders – was to decide on decisions to send the INA to war.<ref name=Lebra2008p77>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=77}}</ref> The Indian leaders feared that they would appear to be Japanese puppets, so a decision was taken that the INA would go to battle only when the [[Indian National Congress]] called it to do so.<ref name=Fay94>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref><ref name=Fay111>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=111}}</ref> Assurances of non-interference— later termed the [[Bidadary resolutions]]— were demanded of Japan; these would have amounted to a treaty with an independent government.<ref name=Toye2007p4/> In this time, F. Kikan had been replaced by the [[Iwakuro Kikan]] (or I Kikan) headed by [[Hideo Iwakuro]]. Iwakuro's working relationship with the league was more tenuous. Japan did not immediately agree to the demands arising from the Bidadary resolutions. Differences also existed between Rash Behari and the League, not least because Rash Behari had lived in Japan for the considerable time and had a Japanese wife and a son in the Imperial Japanese Army.<ref name=Lebra2008p49>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=49}}</ref> On the other hand, Mohan Singh expected military strategy and decisions to be autonomous decisions for the INA, independent of the league.<ref name=Fay150>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=150}}</ref> |
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===Japan=== |
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Japan, at the outbreak of the war had not formulated any concrete policy with regards to India at the outbreak of the war in south-east asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=19}}</ref> It's [[Daihonei|headquarters]] lacked any India experts, while civillian experts on India were few in Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=19}}</ref> At least in 1941, it is accepted that India in Japanese plans were peripheral. It did not feature in the plans for [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]], which focussed on [[south-east asia]] upto the Indo-burmese border. Even then, the plan initially did not even encompass the whole of Burma but only a part of it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> Millitarily however, India was important as the origin (from [[Assam]]) of the [[Ledo road]] which supplied [[Nationalist China|Nationalist Chinese]] and [[China Burma India Theater of World War II#U.S._Land_forces|American forces]], as well as the supplies airlifted over the [[the hump]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> Also, the idea that their western boundary would be controlled by a more friendly government was attractive.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> It would also have been reconciliatory with the idea that Japanese expansion into Asia was part of an effort to support Asian government of Asia and against western colonialism<ref>{{Harvnb|Freedom Depends on Nippon Victory.The Syonan Sinbun, 26 January|1943|p=}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> |
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In November and December 1942, concern about Japan's intentions towards the INA led to disagreement between the INA and the League on the one hand and the Japanese on the other.<ref name=Lebra2008p99>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=99}}</ref> The INA leadership resigned along with that of the League (except Rash Behari). The unit was dissolved by Mohan Singh in December 1942, and he ordered the troops of the INA to return to PoW camps.<ref name=Toye45>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=45}}</ref><ref name=Fay149>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=149}}</ref> Mohan Singh was expected to be shot.<ref name=Toye45/> |
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The successful [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|Malayan campaign]], and later the Burma campaign brought under the Japanese a large number of Indian expatriates who, although not essentially sympathetic to the Japanese (some were even hostile),<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=89}}</ref> held substantial nationalist motives and sought to exploit the window offered by the reversal faced by the British forces to drive them out from the Indian sub-continent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> In addition, the fall of Malaya had brought under Japanese control approximately 45,000 Indian troops under [[Arthur Percival|Percival]]'s command in Malaya,.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> including a large numbers of the remnants of the [[Indian III Corps]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Moreman|2005|p=24}}</ref> In these circumstances,the Japanese Military Administration encouraged various Indian nationalist groups in East Asia to form an anti-British alliance, which came together to form the [[Indian Independence League]] (IIL), with its headquarters in Singapore. The IIL also looked after the welfare of Indian communities in East Asia. Also, intially under the direction of dissatisfied troops of the [[British Indian Army]] who had fallen into Japanese hands (notably under the leadership of Captain Mohan Singh), and of what came to be known the Indian Independence League,came to form the Indian National army. This was from the Japanese point of view primarily a propaganda move of initiating anti-british sentiments among the civillians andand sodiers in South-east Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> |
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Between December 1942 and February 1943, Rash Behari struggled to hold the INA together.<ref name=Fay151>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=151}}</ref> On 15 February 1943, the army itself was put under the command of [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Col.]] [[M.Z. Kiani]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://wn.com/Lt_Col_M_Z_Kiani | title=MZ Kiani | publisher=World News | access-date=2011-08-12}}</ref> A policy forming body was formed with [[J.R. Bhonsle|Lt. Col J.R. Bhonsle]] (Director of the Military Bureau) in charge and clearly placed under the authority of the IIL. Under Bhonsle served [[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Lt. Col. Shah Nawaz Khan]] as Chief of General Staff, [[P.K. Sahgal|Major P.K. Sahgal]] as Military Secretary, [[Raja Habib ur Rahman Khan|Major Habib ur Rahman]] as commandant of the Officers' Training School and Lt. Col. A.C. Chatterji (later Major A.D. Jahangir) as head of enlightenment and culture.<ref name="Fay151"/><ref name=Lebra2008p98>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=98}}</ref> |
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==Japan's Greater East Asia coprosperity sphere and India- Origins of the INA== |
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The importance that India increasingly held in Japanese plans from late 1941 becomes clear from the Japanese decisions to increasingly support and stimulate and profess support for the Indian Independence movement. Exiles like [[Rash Behari Bose]] had already voiced their demands to the Japanese authorities that support and pursuit of Indian Independence be an aim of the Japanese campaign. However, neither the government nor the Imperial Japanese army felt able to commit to these, especially given the task of establishing a stable orderly state should the Independence movement succeed. The Imperial army would be committed to elsewhere, notably China and the Manchurian border with Russia. However, it was widely accepted that the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] was anti-Japanese,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=20}}</ref> [[Gandhi]], even during the intense [[Quit India Movement]], [[Gandhi]] had categorically warned the Japanese<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=134}}</ref> <blockquote>"Make no mistake. You will be sadly disillusioned if you believe that you will recieve a willing welcome from India"</blockquote> Earlier, in april 1941, however, the Consul general to [[Calcutta]] had noted activities of the [[Forward Bloc]], and from [[Berlin]], ambassador [[Oshima Hiroshi]] had reported on [[Subhas Bose]]'s organisation of the [[Free India Legion]]. The foreign ministry did not, however make any overt decisions regarding Bose. |
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==Second INA== |
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By the end of 1941,India had started featuring prominently in the Japanese policies. the Japanese [[IGHQ]] in october set up the Fujiwara Kikan, or the F-kikan, in [[Bangkok]] with aim of intelligence gathering. Headed by the Major Fujiwara Iwaichi, chief of intelligence of the [[:Category:Japanese armies|15th army]], the F-Kikan was tasked to contact the Indian independence movement, the overseas chinese and the Malayan Sultan with the aim of encouraging friendship and cooperation with Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=23}}</ref> Fujiwara's staff included five commissioned officers and two [[hindi]]-speaking interpreters. Fujiwara's intial contact was with [[Pritam Singh]], and after the outbreak of the war and the Malayan invasion, with [[Capt. Mohan Singh]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> Fujiwara, later self-described as "Lawrence of the Indian National Army" (after [[Lawrence of Arabia]]) is said to have been a man committed to the values which his office was supposed to convey to the expatriate nationalist leaders, and found acceptance among them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> |
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===Subhas Chandra Bose=== |
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Subhas Chandra Bose was the ideal person to lead a rebel army into India came from the very beginning of F Kikan's work with captured Indian soldiers. Mohan Singh himself, soon after his first meeting with Fujiwara, had suggested that Bose was the right leader of a nationalist Indian army.<ref name=Toye2007p2>{{Harvnb|Toye|2007|p=2}}</ref> A number of the officers and troops – including some who now returned to prisoner-of-war camps and some who had not volunteered in the first place – made it known that they would be willing to join the INA only if it was led by Subhas Bose.<ref name="Lebra197727">{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=27}}</ref> Bose was a nationalist. He had joined the Gandhian movement after resigning from a prestigious post in the [[Indian Civil Service]] in 1922, quickly rising in the Congress and being incarcerated repeatedly by the Raj.<ref name=Toye1959p80>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=80}}</ref> By late 1920s he and [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] were considered the future leaders of the Congress.<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader>{{Harvnb|Toye|2007|loc=The Rebel President}}</ref> In the late 1920s, he was amongst the first Congress leaders to call for complete independence from Britain (''Purna Swaraj''), rather than the previous Congress objective of India becoming a [[British dominion]].<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader/> In Bengal, he was repeatedly accused by Raj officials of working with the [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|revolutionary movement]]. Under his leadership, the Congress youth group in Bengal was organised into a quasi-military organisation called the [[Bengal Volunteers]].<ref name=Sengupta23and24>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|pp=23–24}}</ref> Bose deplored [[Gandhi]]'s pacifism; Gandhi disagreed with Bose's confrontations with the Raj.<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader/> The Congress's working committee, including Nehru, was predominantly loyal to Gandhi.<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader/> While openly disagreeing with Gandhi, Bose won the presidency of Indian National Congress twice in the 1930s. His second victory came despite opposition from Gandhi. He defeated Gandhi's favoured candidate, [[Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya]], in the popular vote, but the entire working committee resigned and refused to work with Bose.<ref name="Toye1959p100">{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=88}}</ref> Bose resigned from the Congress presidency and founded his own faction within the Congress, the [[All India Forward Bloc]].<ref name=Fayp197>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=197}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Capt. Mohan Singh}} |
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Mohan Singh had been a captain in the [[British Indian Army]], and saw action with the 1/14th Punjab Battalion against Japanese forces at [[Jitra]], where his troops were outgunned and shattered by Japanese tanks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=74}}</ref> He had been captured by Japanese troops after several days in the Jungle and taken to [[Alor Star]] to Fujiwara and Pritam Singh at a joint office of the F-Kikan and the IIL . |
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[[File:Subhas Chandra Bose meeting Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|Bose meeting with [[Adolf Hitler]] in East Prussia, May 1942|295x295px]] |
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Although Pritam Singh was involved to a large extent, it was Fujiwara who, with his sincereity of purpose and belief,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref> convinced Mohan Singh to unite with the Japanese mission for the greater motive of Indian freedom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> This included the promise that he would be treated as an ally and a friend, and not a PoW. Intially helping Fujiwara to take control of the situation of looting and arson that had developed in Alor Star, Singh was in December 1941,after meeting with the Japanese commanding general, convinced of the feasibillity of raising an armed Indian unit. Between himself, Pritam Singh and Fujiwara, Mohan Singh formulated on contacting Indians in the British Indian Army in South-east Asia, and also began recruiting from amongst those captured by the Japanese in Malaya, prior to the [[fall of Singapore]]. Thus the nucleus what came to be the Indian National Army was born.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref> |
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At the start of World War II, Bose was placed under house arrest by the Raj.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv7n1/Bose.htm | title=Subhas Chandra Bose in Nazi Germany | publisher=South Asia Forum Quarterly | work=Sisir K. Majumdar | year=1997 | access-date=2011-08-12 | pages=10–14}}</ref> He escaped in disguise and made his way through Afghanistan and Central -Asia. He came first to the Soviet Union and then to Germany, reaching Berlin on 2 April 1941.<ref name="Lebra2008p219">{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=107}}</ref><ref name="Toye1959p100"/> There he -sought to raise an army of Indian soldiers from prisoners of war captured by Germany,<ref name=Syonan>{{Harvnb|Tojo|1943|p=}}</ref> forming the [[Free India Legion]] and the [[Azad Hind Radio|''Azad Hind'' Radio]].<ref name=Toye1959p117to119>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=117–119}}</ref> The Japanese ambassador, [[Oshima Hiroshi]], kept Tokyo informed of these developments.<ref name=Lebra2008p231>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=231}}</ref> From the very start of the war, the Japanese intelligence services noted from speaking to captured Indian soldiers that Bose was held in extremely high regard as a nationalist and was considered by Indian soldiers to be the right person to be leading a rebel army.<ref name=Toye2007p2/> |
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===Conception of the INA=== |
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The units that were formed in this predecessor of the INA were from volunteers from within the soldiers of the British Indian Army captured in Malaya. The volunteers were issued rifles, and given arm bands bearing the letter "F".<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref> They were organised into units and trained and worked along with those already under Pritam Singh in [[Malaya]] and [[Thailand]]. They were further tasked to work amongst the British Indian troops and forment dissent and encourage defection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref> Before the fall of Singapore, these troops numbered nearly 2,500.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> |
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There was significant deviation from the British Indian Army, in that officers were organised into a single class, adoption of a common kitchen, slogans etc that attempted to bridge any communal and casteist rivalries that were accepted or even institutionalised in the British army.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> |
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In a series of meetings between the INA leaders and the Japanese in 1943, it was decided to cede the leadership of the IIL and the INA to Bose. In January 1943, the Japanese invited Bose to lead the Indian nationalist movement in East Asia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/subhas.htm | title=Total Mobilisation | publisher=National Archives of Singapore | access-date=2011-08-12 | archive-date=29 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829100457/http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/subhas.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> He accepted and left Germany on 8 February. After a three-month journey by submarine and a short stop in Singapore, he reached Tokyo on 11 May 1943. In Tokyo, he met [[Hideki Tojo]], the Japanese prime minister, and the Japanese High Command. He then arrived in Singapore in July 1943, where he made a number of radio broadcasts to Indians in Southeast Asia exhorting them to join in the fight for India's independence.<ref name=Fayp223>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=223}}</ref> |
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===Revival=== |
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By January 1942, Fujiwara was able to give positive reports on the success of Japan's India policy and suggested an eight point policy that included aid for both the IIL and the INA, as well as encouragement of the independence movement within India |
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On 4 July 1943 two days after reaching Singapore, Bose assumed the leadership of the IIL and the Indian National Army in a ceremony at Cathay Building. Bose's influence was notable. His appeal re-invigorated the INA, which had previously consisted mainly of prisoners of war: it also attracted Indian expatriates in South Asia. He famously proclaimed that ''Give me blood! I will give you freedom'' |
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Following the establishment of the F-kikan, and with intial positive feedbacks, a Liaison conference declared among other aims the "stimulation of the Indian indepedence movement".<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref> By early [[1942]], [[Hideki Tojo|Tojo]]'s speeches to the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] included specific references to the liberation of India and to decisions to strike the British colonial authority in India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=22}}</ref> |
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Specific plans for the invasion of India were, however, not formulated. |
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"Local civilians joined the INA, doubling its strength. They included barristers, traders and plantation workers, as well as Khudabadi Sindhi Swarankars who were working as shop keepers; many had no military experience."<ref name=Belle199>{{Harvnb|Belle|2014|p=199}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| publisher = National Archives of Singapore| url = http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/revival.htm| title = Historical Journey of the Indian National Army| access-date = 2007-07-07| archive-date = 16 May 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070516104856/http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/revival.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref> Carl Vadivella Belle estimates under Bose's dynamic appeal, membership of the IIL peaked at 350,000, while almost 100,000 local Indians in South-east Asia volunteered to join the INA, with the army ultimately reaching a force of 50,000.<ref name="Belle199"/> [[Hugh Toye]]— a British Intelligence officer and author of a 1959 history of the army called ''[[The Springing Tiger]]''— and American historian Peter Fay (author of a 1993 history called ''The Forgotten Army'') have reached similar estimates of troop strength. The first INA is considered to have comprised about 40,000 troops, of whom about 4,000 withdrew when it was disbanded in December 1942. The Second INA started with 12,000 troops.<ref name=Toye1959p286>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=286}}</ref> Further recruitment of former Indian Army personnel added about 8,000–10,000. About 18,000 Indian civilians also enlisted during this time.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Belle estimates almost 20,000 were local Malayan Indians, while another 20,000 were ex-British-Indian Army members who volunteered for the INA.<ref name="Belle199"/> |
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==The First INA== |
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[[File:Gandhi and Subhas Bose.jpg|thumb|right| [[Subhas Bose]] with [[Mohandas Gandhi]] at a Congress meeting, c 1938]] |
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Even before Singapore fell, the Japanese troops had started the process of identifying Indian troops among the captured and seperating them from the Australian and British troops. On a number of occasions, it was noted, British and Australian officers were killed, while the Indians spared.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=70}}</ref> |
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The exact organisation of the INA and its precise troop strength is not known, since its records were destroyed by the withdrawing ''Azad Hind'' Government before Rangoon [[Burma Campaign#Race for Rangoon|was recaptured]] by Commonwealth forces in 1945.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=556}}</ref> The order of battle described by Fay (constructed from discussions with INA-veterans), nonetheless, is similar to that described of the first INA by Toye in ''The Springing Tiger''. The 1st Division, under M.Z. Kiani, drew many ex-Indian army prisoners of war who had joined Mohan Singh's first INA. It also drew prisoners of war who had not joined in 1942. It consisted of the 2nd Guerrilla Regiment (the [[Gandhi Brigade (regiment)|Gandhi Brigade]]) consisting of two battalions under Col. Inayat Kiani; the 3rd Guerrilla Regiment (the [[Azad Brigade]]) with three battalions under Col. Gulzara Singh; and the 4th Guerrilla Regiment (or [[Nehru Brigade]]) commanded by the end of the war by Lt. Col [[Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=263}}</ref> The 1st Guerrilla Regiment – the [[Subhas Brigade]] – under Col. Shah Nawaz Khan was an independent unit, consisting of three infantry battalions. A special operations group was also to be set up called the ''[[Bahadur group]]'' (Valiant), to operate behind enemy lines.<ref name=Toye1959138>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=138}}</ref> |
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A training school for INA officers, led by Habib ur Rahman, and the ''Azad'' School for the civilian volunteers were set up to provide training to the recruits. A youth wing of the INA, composed of 45 young Indians personally chosen by Bose and known as the [[Tokyo Boys]], was also sent to Japan's Imperial Military Academy, where its members trained as fighter pilots. A separate all-female unit was also created under [[Lakshmi Sahgal]]. This unit was intended to have combat-commitments.<ref name=Gordonp496>{{Harvnb|Gordon|1990|p=496}}</ref> Named [[Rani of Jhansi Regiment|''Jhansi ki Rani'' ("Jhansi Queens") Regiment]] (after the legendary rebel Queen [[Lakshmibai]] of the [[1857 rebellion]]), it drew female civilian volunteers from Malaya and Burma. The 1st Division was lightly armed. Each battalion was composed of five companies of infantry. The individual companies were armed with six [[antitank rifle]]s, six [[Bren gun]]s and six [[Vickers machine gun]]s. Some NCOs carried [[hand grenade]]s, while senior officers of the ''Bahadur'' groups attached to each unit issued hand grenades (of captured British stock) to men going forward on duty.<ref name=Fay297>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=297}}</ref> |
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[[Fall of Singapore|Singapore surrendered]] on the 15th of February, 1942. On the evening of the 16th, the Indian troops of the now amalgamated 1/14th and 5/14th Punjab were ordered by the Malaya command (of the commonwealth forces) to assemble at [[Farrer Park]]. The British officers were, in the meantime, ordered to assemble east to [[Changi]]. |
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===The Farrer Park addresses=== |
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On the morning of 17 February 1942, some 45,000 Indian POWs who gathered at Farrer Park where addressed by in turns, first by a Col Hunt of the Malaya Command, who handed over the troops to Japanese command under Fujiwara. |
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The 2nd Division was organised under Colonel Abdul Aziz Tajik<ref name=Fay317>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=317}}</ref> It was formed largely after the [[U Go offensive|Imphal offensive]] had started and drew large remnants of what remained of the [[Hindustan Field Force]] of the First INA. The 2nd Division consisted of the 1st Infantry Regiment, which later merged with the 5th Guerrilla Regiment to form the INA's 2nd Infantry Regiment under Col [[Prem Sahgal]]. The 1st Infantry Regiment drew many civilian volunteers from Burma and Malaya and was equipped with the largest share of the heavy armament that the INA possessed.<ref name=Fay318>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=318}}</ref> An additional 3rd Division of the INA was composed chiefly of local volunteers in Malaya and Singapore. This unit disbanded before Japan surrendered. A motor transport division was also created, but it was severely limited by lack of resources. In 1945, at the end of the INA, it consisted of about 40,000 soldiers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=525–526}}</ref> |
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Fujiwara spoke to the troops in Japanese which was translated into English and then [[Hindustani]]. In his speech, Fujiwara is said to have told the troops of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|Asian co-prosperity sphere ]] under the leadership of Japan, of Japanese vision of a free India and it's importance to the co-prosperity sphere, and of the Japanese intentions to help raise a "liberation army" for the freedom of India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=83}}</ref>.He invited the troops seated at the park to join this army. Further, he told the troops, they were going to be treated not as PoWs, but as Freinds and allies. Fujiwara ended his speech stating he is passing on their responsibillities and command to Mohan Singh.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=83}}</ref> |
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Unlike Mohan Singh, whose assumption of the rank of [[general]] had generated opposition, Bose refused to take a rank.<ref name=Bayly&Harper2005p322>{{Harvnb|Bayly|Harper|2005|p=322}}</ref> Both the soldiers of the INA and civilians addressed Bose as ''Netaji'' ("Dear leader"), a term first used in Berlin by members of the Free India Legion.<ref name=Fay236>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=236}}</ref> In October 1943, Bose proclaimed the formation of the ''[[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]]'', or the Provisional Government of Free India (also known as ''Azad Hind'' or Free India). The INA was declared to be the army of ''Azad Hind''.<ref name=Toye1959p80&90to93>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=80,90-93}}</ref> |
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==Operations== |
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Mohan Singh's speech, in [[Hindustani]], was short He told the troops of forming the Indian National Army to fight for free India, and invited the troops to join it. As an Indian [[Jawan]] present at the time remembers, Mohan Singh's speech was powerful and touched a chord, and the troops responded with wild enthusiasm and escitement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=84}}</ref> |
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<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:INA Parade.jpg|thumb|right|Military parade of the INA at the Padang |
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on 5 July 1943]] --><!-- FAIR USE of INA_Parade.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:INA_Parade.jpgfor rationale --> |
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{{Main|Battles and operations of the Indian National Army}} |
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{{See also|India in World War II}} |
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On 23 October 1943, ''Azad Hind'' declared war against Britain and the United States.<ref name=Singh16>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=16}}</ref> Its first formal commitment came with the opening of the Japanese offensive towards [[Manipur]], code-named ''[[Operation U-Go|U-Go]]''. In the initial plans for invasion of India, [[Hisaichi Terauchi|Field Marshal Terauchi]] had been reluctant to confer any responsibilities to the INA beyond espionage and propaganda.<ref name=Toye1959p86>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=86}}</ref> Bose rejected this as the role of [[Fifth-column]]ists,<ref name=Toye1959p86/> and insisted that INA should contribute substantially in troops to form a distinct identity of an Indian-liberation army. He secured from Japanese army Chief of Staff, General Sugiyama, the agreement that INA would rank as an allied army in the offensive.<ref name=Toye1959p149>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=149}}</ref> The advanced headquarters of ''Azad Hind'' was moved to Rangoon in anticipation of success. The INA's own strategy was to avoid set-piece battles, for which it lacked armament as well as manpower.<ref name=Fay292and298>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=292, 298}}</ref> Initially it sought to obtain arms and increase its ranks by inducing British-Indian soldiers to defect. The latter were expected to defect in large numbers. Col Prem Sahgal, once military secretary to Subhas Bose and later tried in the first [[Red Fort trials]], explained the INA strategy to Peter Fay<ref name=Fay139>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=139}}</ref> – although the war itself hung in balance and nobody was sure if the Japanese would win, initiating a popular revolution with grass-roots support within India would ensure that even if Japan ultimately lost the war, Britain would not be in a position to re-assert its colonial authority. It was planned that, once Japanese forces had broken through British defences at [[Imphal]], the INA would cross the hills of [[North-East India]] into the [[Gangetic plain]], where it would work as a guerrilla army.<ref name=Fay268>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=268}}</ref> This army was expected to live off the land, with captured British supplies, support, and personnel from the local population.<ref name=Fay262>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=262}}</ref> |
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===1944=== |
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Controversy exists as to what was actually said by Hunt in the first of the three speeches, while handing over the troops to Japanese authority. [[Peter W. Fay|Fay]] writes in 1993 that a number of the troops gathered at the park remembers Hunt as having told the troops that they now belonged to the Japanese army and should obey their orders while Hunt only remebers having said that they were all Prisoners of War of the Japanese<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=82}}</ref> Nevertheless, Fay also points out that the fact that they were all PoWs was already self-evident, and the fact that they were addressed seperately implies some significance. A number of INA veterans present at the event also insist that Hunt's speech effectively told them they were under Japanese cotrol and command. This also fed a feeling of devaluation (handed over like cattle, as [[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Shah Nawaz Khan]] later put it)<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=83}}</ref>, abandonment and of dishonour on part of the British high command that they perceived to have served loyaly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=83}}</ref> In the days and years to come, a number of INA men cited this act of abandaonment a major reason to join the first INA.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=83}}</ref> It is estimated that nearly half of those present at [[Farrer Park]] later joined the first INA.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=25}}</ref> Significantly however, a large number of Indian officers decided not to, which also kept disinclined those under their command not to.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=87,95,111}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=25}}</ref> |
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{{See also|Battle of the Admin Box|U Go Offensive|Battle of Imphal|Battle of Kohima}} |
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[[File:Indian National Army Possessed Transmitter - 1944 CE - Kolkata 2017-02-05 5116.JPG|thumb|Radio transmitting set seized from INA agents in Calcutta, 1944. Four agents had been landed by submarine on the Indian coast, tasked with setting up a wireless post.]] |
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The plans chosen by Bose and [[Masakazu Kawabe]], chief of the Burma area army, envisaged the INA being assigned an independent sector in the ''U-Go'' offensive. No INA units were to operate at less than battalion strength.<ref name=Toye1959p161>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=161}}</ref> For operational purposes, the Subhas Brigade was placed under the command of the Japanese General Headquarters in Burma. Advance parties of the ''Bahadur'' Group also went forward with advanced Japanese units.<ref name=Toye159>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=159}}</ref> As the offensive opened, the INA's 1st Division, consisting of four guerrilla regiments, was divided between ''U Go'' and the diversionary ''[[Second Arakan Offensive|Ha-Go]]'' offensive in [[Rakhine State|Arakan]].<ref name=Toye1959p161/><ref name=Toye162>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=162}}</ref> One battalion reached as far as Mowdok in [[Chittagong]] after breaking through the [[British West African Division]].<ref name=Sareen1996p184>{{Harvnb|Sareen|1996|p=184}}</ref><ref name=Bijil112>{{Harvnb|van Der Bijil|2013|p=112}}</ref> A Bahadur Group unit, led by Col. [[Shaukat Malik]], took the border enclave of [[Moirang]] in early April.<ref name=Toye1959p198&215>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=198, 215}}</ref> The main body of the 1st Division was however committed to the ''U-Go'', directed towards Manipur. Led by Shah Nawaz Khan, it successfully protected the Japanese flanks against Chin and Kashin guerrillas as [[Renya Mutaguchi]]'s three divisions crossed the [[Chindwin river]] and the [[Naga Hills]], and participated in the main offensive through [[Tamu, Myanmar|Tamu]] in the direction of Imphal and [[Kohima]].<ref name=Fayp283and284>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=283–284}}</ref><ref name=Toyep189to191>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=189–191}}</ref> The 2nd Division, under M.Z. Kiani, was placed to the right flank of the 33rd Division attacking Kohima. However, by the time Khan's forces left Tamu, the offensive had been held, and Khan's troops were redirected to Kohima. After reaching Ukhrul, near Kohima, they found Japanese forces had begun their withdrawal from the area. The INA's forces suffered the same fate as Mutaguchi's army when the siege of Imphal was broken. With little or nothing in the way of supplies, and with additional difficulties caused by the monsoon, Allied air dominance, and Burmese irregular forces, the 1st and 2nd divisions began withdrawing alongside the 15th Army and [[Burma Area Army]]. During the withdrawal through Manipur, a weakened Gandhi regiment held its position against the advancing [[Maratha Light Infantry]] on the Burma–India road while the general withdrawal was prepared.<ref name=Fay289>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=289–292}}</ref><ref name=Toye138and162>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=138, 162, 203, 210}}</ref> The 2nd and 3rd INA regiments protected the flanks of the Yamamoto force successfully at the most critical time during this withdrawal,<ref name="Toye1959207">{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=207}}</ref> but wounded and diseased men succumbed to starvation along the route. Commonwealth troops following the Japanese forces found INA dead along with Japanese troops who had died of starvation.<ref name=Toye180>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=180}}</ref> The INA lost a substantial number of men and amount of materiel in this retreat. A number of units were disbanded or used to feed into new divisions.<ref name=Fay417>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=417}}</ref> |
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===1945=== |
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The Japanese foces, eager to engage the co-operation of the troops and further lacking the man-power, did not have the men impounded. The supreme command of the INA was set up at Mount Pleasant suburbs in the Northern part of the City. The PoW headquarters, along with the largest PoW camp was set up at Neesoon under [[M. Z. Kiani]]. Other relatively smaller PoW camps housing Indian troops were set up at Bidadari, Tyersall, Buller, [[Seletar]] and [[Kranji]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=88}}</ref> To Lt. Col [[Niranjan Singh Gill|N.S Gill]] went the overall direction of PoW.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=88}}</ref> |
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{{See also|Battle of Pokoku|Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay}} |
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As the Allied [[Burma campaign]] began the following year, the INA remained committed to the defence of Burma and was a part of the Japanese defensive deployments. The Second Division was tasked with the defence of [[Irrawaddy Delta|Irrawaddy]] and the adjoining areas around Nangyu, and offered opposition to [[Frank Messervy|Messervy]]'s 7th Indian Division when it attempted to cross the river at Pagan and Nyangyu during [[Battle of Pokoku and Irrawaddy River operations|Irrawaddy operations]].<ref name="Fayp330"/><ref name=Fay539>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=539}}</ref> Later, during the [[Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay|Battles of Meiktila and Mandalay]], the forces under Prem Sahgal were tasked with defending the area around [[Mount Popa]] from the British 17th Division, which would have exposed the flank of [[Heitarō Kimura]]'s forces attempting to retake Meiktila and Nyangyu. The division was obliterated, at times fighting tanks with hand grenades and bottles of petrol.<ref name=Fay358>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=358}}</ref><ref name=Toye1959p229>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=229}}</ref> Many INA soldiers realised that they were in a hopeless position. Many surrendered to pursuing Commonwealth forces. Isolated, losing men to exhaustion and to desertion, low on ammunition and food, and pursued by Commonwealth forces, the surviving units of the second division began an attempt to withdraw towards Rangoon. They broke through encircling Commonwealth lines a number of times before finally surrendering at various places in early April 1945.<ref name=Fay539/><ref name=Singh32and33>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|pp=32–33}}</ref> As the Japanese situation became precarious, the ''Azad Hind'' government withdrew from Rangoon to Singapore, along with the remnants of the 1st Division and the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Nearly 6,000 troops of the surviving units of the INA remained in Rangoon under [[A. D. Loganathan]]. They surrendered as Rangoon fell and helped keep order until the Allied forces entered the city.<ref name=Toye261>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=261}}</ref> |
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As the Japanese withdrawal from Burma progressed, other remnants of the INA began a long march overland and on foot towards Bangkok. In what has been called an "epic retreat to safety",<ref name=Belle204>{{Harvnb|Belle|2014|p=204}}</ref> Bose walked with his troops, refusing to leave them despite Japanese soldiers finding him transport.<ref name=Toye1959p248/> The withdrawing forces regularly suffered casualties from Allied planes strafing them and in clashes with [[Aung San]]'s Burmese resistance, as well as from Chinese guerrillas who harassed the Japanese troops.<ref name=Toye1959p248>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=248}}</ref> Bose returned to Singapore in August to what remained of the INA and ''Azad Hind''. He wished to stay with his government in Singapore to surrender to the British, reasoning that a trial in India and possible execution would ignite the country, serving the independence movement. He was convinced not to do so by the ''Azad Hind'' cabinet.<ref name=BoseHMOp>{{Harvnb|Bose|2013|p=undefined}}</ref> At the time of Japan's surrender in September 1945, Bose left for [[Dalian]] near the Soviet border in [[Manchukuo|Japanese-occupied China]] to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops, and was [[Death of Subhash Chandra Bose|reported to have died]] in an air crash near Taiwan.<ref name=Fay372>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=372–373}}</ref><ref name=Fay384>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=384}}</ref> The remaining INA troops surrendered under the command of M.Z. Kiani to British-Indian forces at Singapore.<ref name=Bose2006p143>{{Harvnb|Bose|2006|p=143}}</ref> |
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===Bidadary Resolution-proclamation of the INA.=== |
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==End of the INA== |
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Niranjan Singh Gill did not trust Japanese overtures and intentions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref> Mohan Singh, however, was confident. In April 1942, even as the discussions and the process of setting up the [[Indian Independence League]] and defining the aims of the movement carried on, Mohan Singh convened a meeting of a group of his officers to frame what is now called the Bidadary resolution. This resolution announced that:<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref> <blockquote>Indians stood above all differences of caste, community, or religion. Independence was every Indian's birthright. An Indian National Army would be raised to fight for it.</blockquote> |
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The resolution further specified that the army would go to battle only when the Congress and the people of India asked it to.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref> It did not however, specify the army was to interact with the Japanese forces.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref> This resolution was circulated among the Indian PoWs, followed by tour of the mainland camps by Mohan Singh and Fujiwara. The PoW headquarter was subsequently dissolved and the staff were transferred to Mohan Singh's supreme command. On [[9 May]], Singh began recruiting for the INA.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref> |
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===Repatriation to India=== |
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The process involved identifying units that were most likely to come up with volunteers. These units were transferred to Neesoon and Bidadary, while the other units were shipped away to other camps.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref> |
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{{See also|CSDIC(I)}} |
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[[File:Surrendered Indian National Army troops at Mount Popa.jpg|thumb|250px|Troops of the Indian National Army who surrendered at [[Mount Popa]]. ''Circa'' April 1945.]] |
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Even before the end of the war in South Asia, the INA prisoners who were falling into Allied hands were being evaluated by forwarding intelligence units for potential trials.<ref name=Fay436>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=436}}</ref> Almost fifteen hundred had been captured in the battles of Imphal and Kohima and the subsequent withdrawal,<ref name=Lebra2008p200>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=200}}</ref> while larger numbers surrendered or were captured during the 14th Army's Burma Campaign. A total of 16,000 of the INA's 43,000 recruits were captured, of whom around 11,000 were interrogated by the [[CSDIC(I)|Combined Services Directorate of Investigation Corps]] (CSDIC).<ref name=Fay459>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=459}}</ref> The number of prisoners necessitated this selective policy which anticipated trials of those with the strongest commitment to Bose's ideologies. Those with lesser commitment or other extenuating circumstances would be dealt with more leniently, with the punishment proportional to their commitment or war crimes.<ref name=Singh38/> For this purpose, the field intelligence units designated the captured troops as ''Blacks'' with the strongest commitment to ''Azad Hind''; ''Greys'' with varying commitment but also with enticing circumstances that led them to join the INA; and ''Whites'', those who were pressured into joining the INA under the circumstances but with no commitment to ''Azad Hind'', INA, or Bose.<ref name=Singh39>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=39}}</ref> |
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By July 1945, a large number had been shipped back to India. At the time of the fall of Japan, the remaining captured troops were transported to India via Rangoon. Large numbers of local Malay and Burmese volunteers, including the recruits to the Rani of Jhansi regiment, returned to civilian life and were not identified.<ref name=Singh38>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=38}}</ref> Those repatriated passed through transit camps in Chittagong and [[Calcutta]] to be held at detention camps all over India including Jhingergacha and Nilganj near Calcutta, Kirkee outside Pune, [[Attock]], [[Multan]] and at Bahadurgarh near Delhi. Bahadurgarh also held prisoners of the Free India Legion.<ref name=Fay436/> By November, around 12,000 INA prisoners were held in these camps; they were released according to the "colours".<ref name=Fay436/> By December, around 600 ''Whites'' were released per week. The process to select those to face trial started.<ref name=Fay436/> |
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===Indian Independence League=== |
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{{Main|Indian Independence League}} |
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The Japanese government and high-command had, with Fujiwara's encouraging feedbacks in early [[1942]], sought to expand the scope and support for the evolving INA and the Japanese support for the independence movement. <ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=90}}</ref> For this it sought the counsel of [[Rash Behari Bose]],an Indian nationalist who had lived in self-exile in [[Japan]] since the 1920s. Rash Behari enouraged the formation of the INA, but also sought to attach it to a central civillian authority speaking for and encouraging Indian civillian Indian population of the region to become a part of it. |
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The British-Indian Army intended to implement appropriate internal disciplinary action against its soldiers who had joined the INA, whilst putting to trial a selected group in order to preserve discipline in the Indian Army and to award punishment for criminal acts where these had occurred.<ref name="Singh44and45">{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=44,45}}</ref> As news of the army spread within India, it began to draw widespread sympathy support and admiration from Indians. Newspaper reports around November 1945 reported executions of INA troops,<ref>{{cite web |
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With the occupation of South-East Asia, a large population of expatriate Indian population had come under the Japanese occupation. A framework of local Indian associations had existed even before the war reached Malaya. In March of [[1942]], the local leaders of the Indian Independence leagues, as well as Mohan Singh and other representatives, of the INA met at a conference in [[Tokyo]] under the invitation of [[Rash Behari Bose]], in Japan. with with the occupation authority's encouragement, amalgamated to form the [[Indian Independence League]].The League became the liasing organisation with the local Indian population and the Japanese. In April, the All-Malayan Indian Independence League was formed. This organisation was yet to define its relations with the INA and with the Japanese authorities. In the same month, Mohan Singh formally delcared the formation of the Indian National Army. In June, the formation of an all-Indian IIL was proclaimed at Bangkok. |
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|work = Hindustan Times |
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|url = http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_2_45.gif |
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|title = Many INA already executed. |
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|access-date = 2007-09-02 |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070809180542/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_2_45.gif |
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|archive-date = 9 August 2007 |
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|df = dmy-all |
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}}</ref> which worsened the already volatile situation. Increasingly violent confrontations broke out between the police and protesters at the mass rallies being held all over India, culminating in public riotings in support of the INA men.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=351}}</ref><ref name=Sarkar419>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=419}}</ref><ref name=Fay499>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=499}}</ref> This public outcry defied traditional communal barriers of the subcontinent, representing a departure from the divisions between Hindus and Muslims seen elsewhere in the independence movement and [[Pakistan independence movement|campaign for Pakistan]].<ref name=Singh39and40>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|pp=39–40}}</ref> |
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=== |
===Red Fort trials=== |
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{{Main|Indian National Army trials}} |
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In [[June]] [[1942]], the [[Bangkok]] conference specified in the Tokyo assembly was held. This saw the constitution of the Indian Independence League. The Bangkok resolution defined the league as consisting of a Council for Action and a Committee of representatives below it. The INA was to be sub-ordinate to the League.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=108}}</ref>Rash Behari Bose was to chair the council, while K.P.K Menon, Nedyam Raghavan were among the civillian members of the counil. Mohan Singh and an officer by the name of Gilani were to be the INA's members.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=108}}</ref> The Bangkok resolution further reaffirmed the Bidadary resolution that the INA was only to go to war when the Congress and the Indian population wished it to.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=111}}</ref> |
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Between November 1945 and May 1946, approximately ten courts-martial were held in public at the [[Red Fort]] in Delhi. [[Claude Auchinleck]], the [[Commander-in-Chief, India|Commander-in-Chief]] of the British-Indian army, hoped that by holding public trials in the Red Fort, public opinion would turn against the INA if the media reported stories of torture and collaborationism, helping him settle a political as well as military question.<ref name=Singh42-43>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|pp=42–43}}</ref> Those to stand trials were accused variously of murder, torture and "waging war against the King-Emperor". However, the first and most celebrated joint courts-martial – those of Prem Sahgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan – were not the story of torture and murder Auchinleck had hoped to tell the Indian press and people. The accusations against them included the alleged murder of their comrades-in-arms in the INA whilst in Burma. Peter Fay highlights in his book ''The Forgotten Army'' that the murders alleged were, in fact, courts-martial of captured deserters the defendants had presided over. If it was accepted that the three were part of a genuine combatant army (as the legal defence team later argued), they had followed due process of written INA law and of the normal process of conduct of war in execution of the sentences.<ref name=Toyexix>{{harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=Mason, in foreword p. xix}}</ref> Indians rapidly came to view the soldiers who enlisted as patriots and not enemy-collaborators. [[Philip Mason]], then-Secretary of the War Department, later wrote that "in a matter of weeks ... in a wave of nationalist emotion, the INA were acclaimed heroes who fought for the freedom of India."<ref name=Toyexviii>{{harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=Mason, in foreword, p. xviii}}</ref> The three accused were from the three major religions of India: Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism. Indians felt the INA represented a true, secular, national army when judged against the British-Indian Army, where caste and religious differences were preserved amongst ranks.<ref name="Singh39and40"/><ref name=Singh74>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=74}}</ref> The opening of the first trial saw violence and a series of riots in a scale later described as "sensational".<ref name=Chaudhuri1953/> The Indian National Congress and the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] both made the release of the INA prisoners an important political issue during the campaign for independence in 1945–1946.<ref name=Chaudhury1953p1>{{harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=1}}</ref> Lahore in Diwali 1946 remained dark as the traditional earthen lamps lit on Diwali were not lit by families in support of prisoners.<ref name=Singh79>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=79}}</ref> In addition to civilian campaigns of non-cooperation and non-violent protest, protest spread to include mutinies within the British-Indian Army and sympathy within the British-Indian forces. Support for the INA crossed communal barriers to the extent that it was the last major campaign in which the Congress and the Muslim League aligned together; the Congress [[Flag of India|tricolour]] and the green flag of the League were flown together at protests.<ref name=Sengupta77>{{harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=77}}</ref> |
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There remains suggestions, however, that members of the League and the INA, including Niranjan Singh Gill who directed the PoW camps, were apprehensive about Japanese intentions with regards to the league, the Independence movement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=93,108}}</ref> Even within the league, members of the original Indian delegation to the Tokyo conference held reservations abou serving Rash Behari and of ultimate Japanese intentions with regards to independent India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=91,108}}</ref> |
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The Congress quickly came forward to defend soldiers of the INA who were to be court-martialled.<ref name=Singh44>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=44}}</ref> The [[INA Defence Committee]] was formed by the Indian Congress and included prominent Indian legal figures, among whom were [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Bhulabhai Desai]], [[Kailashnath Katju]] and [[Asaf Ali]].<ref name=Sengupta77/> The trials covered arguments based on military law, constitutional law, international law, and politics. Mithi Mukherjee call the trials a "key moment in the elaboration of an anticolonial critique of international law in India."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mukherjee|first=Mithi|year=2019|title=The "Right to Wage War" against Empire: Anticolonialism and the Challenge to International Law in the Indian National Army Trial of 1945|journal=Law and Social Inquiry|volume=44|issue=2|pages=420–443|doi=10.1017/lsi.2019.12|s2cid=191697854|doi-access=free}}</ref> Much of the initial defence was based on the argument that they should be treated as prisoners of war as they were not paid mercenaries but ''bona fide'' soldiers of a legal government – Bose's ''Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind''.<ref name=Fay80>{{harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=79–80}}</ref> [[Nehru]] argued that "however misinformed or otherwise they had been in their notion of patriotic duty towards their country", they recognized the free Indian state as their sovereign and not the British sovereign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cohen|1963|pp=411–429}}</ref> Peter Fay points out that at least one INA prisoner – [[Burhan-ud-Din of Chitral|Burhan-ud-Din]] a brother of the ruler of [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]] – may have deserved to be accused of torture, but his trial had been deferred on administrative grounds.<ref name=Singh41>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=41}}</ref> Those charged after the first celebrated courts-martial only faced trial for torture and murder or abetment of murder. Charges of treason were dropped for fear of inflaming public opinion.<ref name=Fayp497>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=497}}</ref> |
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Further among the thirty-four points of the Bangkok resolution, the INA and the IIL raised a number of questions including the role and position of India in Japan's co-prosperity sphere, Japan's intentions in and towards an Independent India etc. These were presented via the [[#Iwakuro Kikan|Iwakuro Kikan]] that had replaced the [[#Fujiwara Kikan|Fujiwara Kikan]] and demanded a point-by-point answer which Tokyo was not able to give assurances to, which was unacceptable to the Council for action.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=27}}</ref> |
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In spite of aggressive and widespread opposition to the continuation of the court-martial, it was completed. All three defendants were found guilty in many of the charges and sentenced to deportation for life. The sentence, however, was never carried out. Immense public pressure, demonstrations, and riots forced Claude Auchinleck to release all three defendants. Within three months, 11,000 soldiers of the INA were released after cashiering and forfeiture of pay and allowance.<ref name=Chaudhuri1953/><ref name=Childs>{{Harvnb|Childs|2000|p=28}}</ref> On the recommendation of [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] and with the agreement of Jawaharlal Nehru, former soldiers of the INA were not allowed to join the new [[Indian Armed Forces]] as a condition for independence.<ref name=Ganguly>{{cite web |
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===Iwakuro Kikan=== |
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| author = Ganguly, Sumit |
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{{Expand|date=June 2007}} |
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| publisher = Columbia University Press |
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In the [[Spring (season)|spring]] of [[1942]], based on Fujiwara's own proposals in January which included the suggestion of expanding the work of the F-Kikan to all parts of Asia<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=25}}</ref> Fujiwara was replaced by Col.[[Hideo Iwakuro]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=25}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=109}}</ref> The I-Kikan was considerably larger, with some 250 officers and with offices in [[Rangoon]], [[Penang]], [[Saigon]] and [[Hong Kong]]. The close relation of Fujiwara and Mohan Singh, however, was not to be repeated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=109}}</ref> |
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| url=http://www.ciaonet.org/book/anderson/anderson10.html#note29 |
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Iwakuro, the founder of the Army intelligence school ''Rikugun Nakano Gakko'', was considered less idealistic and romantic than Fujiwara<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=27}}</ref> and did not use his expertise to encouage the "true Indian army" that Fujiwara had envisioned, aware that the [[IGHQ]] did not have any immediate plans for an invasion towards [[India]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=109}}</ref> Iwakuro was further placed in office at a time when the [[Pacific War]] faced a higher priority among for [[materiel]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=25}}</ref> Using his expertise in [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] and [[Special forces|special missions]], Iwakuro sought to train the Indian forces in such mission, and by some accounts only engaged in as much development of the INA as would keep Mohan Singh happy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=109}}</ref> |
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| title= Explaining India's Transition to Democracy. |
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| access-date=2007-09-03 |
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}}</ref> |
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Some mutinies in the [[Royal Indian Navy]] in 1946 are thought to have been caused by the nationalist feelings inspired by the opposition to INA trials.<ref name="Fay 1993 p=496,498,499">{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=496, 498–499}}</ref> Historians like [[Sumit Sarkar]], Peter Cohen, Fay and others suggest that these events played a crucial role in hastening the end of British rule.<ref name=Chaudhuri1953>{{Harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=349}}</ref><ref name=Sarkar411>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=411}}</ref> |
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===Quit India=== |
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{{Main|Quit India Movement}} |
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Although the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] had conditionally supported the Allied war effort, following failure of the [[Cripp's Mission]], the [[Quit India Movement]] was launched in India on [[8 August]], [[1942]] that called for the [[British Raj]] to leave India or face a massive [[Civil Disobedience]]. Forewarned, the Raj quickly arrested the Congress leadership. However, foreplanning on the part of the Congress meant the movement continued at the local level, and quickly deteriorated into a leaderless act of defiance and descencded into violence and general anarchy and mayhem. The movement created alarm amongst the high-command and significantly hindered the Allied war effort. |
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In south-east asia, this was percieved as the signal that the INA and the League expected to recieve to start it's war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=112,134}}</ref> |
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==Post 1947== |
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===Intelligence and special services=== |
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Within India, the INA continues to be an emotive and celebrated subject of discussion.<ref name=LebraROJR107>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=107}}</ref> It continued to have a stronghold over the public psyche and the sentiments of the armed forces until as late as 1947.<ref name=Green68>{{Harvnb|Green|1948|p=68}}</ref> It has been suggested that Shah Nawaz Khan was tasked with organising INA troops to train Congress volunteers at Jawaharlal Nehru's request in late 1946 and early 1947. After 1947, several members of the INA who were closely associated with Subhas Bose and with the INA trials were prominent in public life.<ref name="Lebra2008p219"/> A number of them held important positions in independent India, serving as ambassadors immediately after independence: [[Abid Hasan (diplomat)|Abid Hasan]] in Egypt and Denmark, [[A. C. N. Nambiar]] in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]], [[Mehboob Hasan]] in Canada, [[Cyril John Stracey]] in the Netherlands, and [[N. Raghavan]] in Switzerland.<ref name=Gordon369>{{Harvnb|Gordon|1990|p=369}}</ref> Mohan Singh was elected to the [[Rajya Sabha]], the upper house of the Indian Parliament. He worked for the recognition of the members of Indian National Army as "freedom fighters" in the cause of the nation's independence in and out of Parliament.<ref name=Lebra1971p243>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1971|p=243}}</ref> Shah Nawaz Khan served as Minister of State for [[Indian Railways|Rail]] in the [[First Nehru ministry|first Indian cabinet]].<ref name=Ram2010p197>{{Harvnb|Ram|2010|p=197}}</ref> Lakshmi Sahgal, Minister for Women's Affairs in the ''Azad Hind'' government, was a well known and widely respected public figure in India.<ref name=LebraROJpxii>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=xii}}</ref> In 1971, she joined the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] and was later elected the leader of the [[All India Democratic Women's Association]].<ref name=Forbes1999p276>{{Harvnb|Forbes|1999|p=276}}</ref> [[Joyce Lebra]], an American historian, wrote that the rejuvenation of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]], then a fledgling [[Tamils|Tamil]] political party in southern India, would not have been possible without participation of INA members.<ref name=LebraROJ111>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=111}}</ref> |
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The Iwakuro Kikan and the Indian Independence League was instrumental in training a number of INA recruits as well as civillian volunteers from Malaya in intelligence and subversion activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=145}}</ref> |
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[[File:Lakshmi Sahgal.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ex-INA member [[Lakshmi Sahgal]] in later life, at a political meeting in India]] |
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===The end of the first INA=== |
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Some accounts suggest that the INA veterans were involved in training civilian resistance forces against the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]]'s [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]] prior to the execution of [[Operation Polo]] and annexation of Hyderabad.<ref>{{cite web |
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<ref> '''Historical Journey of the Indian National Army. Birth and Early Years'''. National Archives of Singapore. http://www.s1942.org.sg/indian_national_army/birth.htm. URL accessed on 20 Aug 06.</ref> By late 1942, however, the divisions appeared as the Indian troops increasingly felt as pawns in the hands of the Japanese. In December, Mohan Singh and other INA leaders ordered the INA to disband after severe disagreements with the Japanese. Mohan Singh was subsequently arrested by the Japanese and exiled to [[Pulau Ubin]]. |
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| author =Menon, P |
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| work=The Hindu |
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| url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070510/1857/main12.htm |
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|title=The States |
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| access-date=2007-09-03 |
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}}</ref> |
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There are also suggestions that some INA veterans led Pakistani irregulars during the [[First Kashmir war]]. [[Mohammed Zaman Kiani]] served as Pakistan's political agent to [[Gilgit]] in the late 1950s.<ref name=Gordon369/><ref>{{cite web |
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| publisher = Provisional Assembly of Punjab (Lahore-Pakistan). Govt of Pakistan |
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| url=http://pap.gov.pk/legislators/last/dist2.htm |
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|title= Taj Muhammad Khanzada. Legislators from Attock. |
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| access-date=2007-09-19 |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071101134400/http://pap.gov.pk/legislators/last/dist2.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-11-01}}</ref> Of the very few ex-INA members who joined the Indian Armed Forces after 1947 [[R. S. Benegal]], a member of the Tokyo Boys, joined the [[Indian Air Force]] in 1952 and later rose to be an [[air commodore]].<ref name=BenegalForeword>{{Harvnb|Benegal|2013|loc=Foreword}}</ref> Benegal saw action in both [[1965 War|1965]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], earning a [[Maha Vir Chakra]], India's second-highest award for valour.<ref name=BharatRakshak>{{cite web |
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| work= Bharat Rakshak |
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| url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/Record/view.php?srnum=4220 |
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|title=Air Commodore Ramesh Sakharam Benegal |
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| access-date=2015-09-18 |
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}}</ref> |
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Among other prominent members of the INA, [[Ram Singh Thakur]], composer of a number of songs including the INA's regimental march [[Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja]], has been credited by some for the modern tune of the [[Indian national anthem]].<ref name=Rediff>{{cite web |
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==Order of Battle== |
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| work= Rediff on the net |
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Earnest organisation of the INA in preparation for battle began after news of [[Quit India]] had reached South-east Asia. According to the reviews available, the INA was to be organised of twelve infantry battalions of 650 troops, organised into four [[guerrilla]] regiments of 2000 men. The first of these, led by Bhonsle, was the Hindustan Field Force. The remaining four were to be designated [[Gandhi]], [[Nehru]] and [[Abul Kalam Azad|Azad]] regiment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=138,140}}</ref> |
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| url=http://www.rediff.com/news/feb/22anthem.htm |
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|title=Who composed the score for Jana Gana Mana? Gurudev or the Gorkha? |
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| access-date=2015-09-18 |
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}}</ref> |
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Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Lakshmi Sahgal were later awarded the Indian civilian honours of [[Padma Bhushan]] and [[Padma Vibhushan]] respectively by the Indian Government in the 1990s.<ref name=Raman2009p176>{{Harvnb|Raman|2009|p=176}}</ref><ref name=GopalGandhi2007p392>{{Harvnb|Gandhi|2007|p=392}}</ref> Lakshmi Sahgal was nominated for the [[President of India|Indian presidential election]] by communist parties in 2002. She was the sole opponent of [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]], who emerged victorious.<ref name=KochanekandHardgravep74>{{Harvnb|Kochanek|Hardgrave|2007|p=74}}</ref> Subhas Bose himself was posthumously awarded [[Bharat Ratna]] in 1992, but this was later withdrawn over the controversy over the [[Death of Subhas Chandra Bose|circumstances of his death]].<ref name=TOI>{{cite news |
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Additional special units were also to be organised. These included an Intelligence froup for forward intelligence, a Special Service Group to promote defection amongst the British Indian Army and a Reinforcement group to recieve the defectors and prepare them for service with the INA.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=139}}</ref> |
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| work= Times of India |
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| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/Why-was-the-Bharat-Ratna-Award-given-to-Netaji-Subhash-Chandra-Bose-withdrawn-by-the-Supreme-Court-in-1992/articleshow/1353901.cms |
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|title=Why was the Bharat Ratna Award given to Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose withdrawn by the Supreme Court in 1992? |
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| date=31 December 2005 |
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| access-date=2015-09-18 |
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}}</ref> |
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Former INA recruits in diasporic Singapore, however, faced a different situation. In Singapore, Indians – particularly those who were associated with the INA – were treated with disdain as they were "stigmatized as fascists and Japanese collaborators".<ref name="Sengupta149">{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=149}}</ref><ref name="Stenson106">{{Harvnb|Stenson|2011|p=106}}</ref> Some within this diaspora later emerged as notable political and social leaders. The consolidation of trade unions in the form of [[National Union of Plantation Workers]] was led by ex-INA leaders.<ref name=LebraROJ111/> In Malaya, notable members of the INA were involved in founding the [[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC) in 1946; [[John Thivy]] was the founding president.<ref name=Ooip136>{{Harvnb|Ooi|2004|p=136}}</ref> [[Janaky Athi Nahappan]], second-in-command of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, was also a founding member of the MIC and later became a noted welfare activist and a distinguished senator in the [[Dewan Negara]] of the [[Malaysian Parliament]]. [[Rasammah Bhupalan]], also of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, later became a well-known welfare-activist and a widely respected champion for [[women's rights]] in [[Malaysia]].<ref name=LebraROJp103>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=103}}</ref> |
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==December 1942- February 1943== |
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Between December 1942 and February 1943, Rash Behari Bose tried but failed to keep the IIL and INA going. Thousands of INA soldiers returned to the status of POWs again and most of the IIL leaders resigned. The movement was seen doomed to fail. In a series of meetings between the INA leaders and the Japanese in 1943, it was decided to cede the leadership of the IIL and the INA to Subhash Chandra Bose. |
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==Relations== |
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Bose had, at the start of the war in Europe, [[Subhash Chandra Bose#.22The Great Escape.22|escaped from house arrest]] to make his way to [[Germany]], reaching Berlin on 2 April 1941. In Germany he convinced Hitler, in a series of conferences, to support the cause of Indian Independence,<ref>'''Axis War Makes Easier Task of Indians. Chandra Bose's Berlin Speech.''' ''Syonan Sinbun, 26 January 1943.'' </ref> forming the Free India Legion and the [[Azad Hind Radio]] By early 1943, Bose had turned his attention to Southeast Asia. With its large overseas Indian population, it was recognised that the region was fertile ground for establishing an anti-colonial force to fight the Raj. |
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{{See also|India in World War II}} |
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===Japanese Army=== |
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==The rise of the second INA== |
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The INA was known as the puppet army of the Japanese empire.<ref name="Seaman"/><ref name="Tanaka"/> In early days, the officers in the INA distrusted the Japanese. Leaders of the first INA sought formal assurances from [[empire of Japan|Japan]] before committing to war. When these did not arrive, Mohan Singh resigned after ordering his army to disband; he expected to be sentenced to death. After Bose established ''Azad Hind'', he tried to establish his political independence from the regime that supported him. Indeed, he had led protests against the [[Mukden Incident|Japanese expansion into China]], and supported [[Chiang Kai-shek]] during the 1930s. Azad ''Hind'' depended on Japan for arms and material but sought to be as financially independent as possible, levying taxes and raising donations from Indians in Southeast Asia".<ref name=Belle200>{{Harvnb|Belle|2014|p=200}}</ref> On the Japanese side, members of the high command had been personally impressed by Bose and were willing to grant him some latitude; more importantly, the Japanese were interested in maintaining the support of a man who had been able to mobilise large numbers of Indian expatriates – including, most importantly, 40,000 of the 45,000 Indians captured by the Japanese at Singapore.<ref>{{cite press release | url=http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/burma.html | title=Capture of INA | access-date=2011-08-12 | archive-date=28 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828070537/http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/burma.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Faye notes that interactions between soldiers in the field was different. Attempts to use Shah Nawaz's troops in road building and as porters angered the troops, forcing Bose to intervene with Mutaguchi. After the withdrawal from Imphal, the relations between both junior non-commissioned officers and between senior officers had deteriorated. INA officers accused the Japanese Army high command of trying to deceive INA troops into fighting for Japan. Conversely, Japanese soldiers often expressed disdain for INA soldiers for having changed their oath of loyalty. This mutual dislike was especially strong after the withdrawal from Imphal began; Japanese soldiers, suspicious that INA defectors had been responsible for their defeat, addressed INA soldiers as "shameless one" instead of "comrade" as previously had been the case.<ref name=Toye203>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=203}}</ref> ''Azad Hind'' officials in Burma reported difficulties with the Japanese military administration in arranging supply for troops and transport for wounded men as the armies withdrew. Toye notes that local IIL members and ''[[Azad Hind Dal]]'' (local ''Azad Hind'' administrative teams) organised relief supplies from Indians in Burma at this time. As the situation in Burma became hopeless for the Japanese, Bose refused requests to use INA troops against Aung San's [[Burma National Army]], which had turned against Japan and was now allied with Commonwealth forces.<ref name=Toye1959p231>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=231}}</ref> |
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[[Image: INA_Parade.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Military parade of the INA at the Padang |
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<!-- FAIR USE of Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg for rationale --> |
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In January 1943, the Japanese invited Bose to lead the Indian nationalist movement in East Asia. He accepted and left Germany on 8 February. After a three-month journey by submarine, and a short stop in Singapore, he reached Tokyo on 11 May 1943, where he made a number of radio broadcasts to the Indian communities, exhorting them to join in the fight for India’s Independence. |
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===British-Indian Army=== |
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[[Image:Tokyo_Boys.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Tokyo Boys,Tokyo Imperial Military Academy.]] <!-- FAIR USE of Tokyo_Boys.JPG: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tokyo_Boys.JPG for rationale --> |
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{{See also|Jiffs}} |
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On 4 July 1943, two days after reaching Singapore, Subhash Chandra Bose assumed the leadership of the IIL and the INA in a ceremony at Cathay Building. Bose's influence was notable. His appeal not only re-invigorated the fledgling INA, which previously comprised mainly of POWs, his appeals also touched a chord with the Indian expatriates in South Asia as local civilians- ranging from barristers to plantation workers – had no military experience joined the INA, doubled its troop strength.<ref> Journey of the Indian National Army.''' Revival'''. National Archives of Singapore. http://www.s1942.org.sg/indian_national_army/revival.htm. URL accessed on 20 Aug 06.</ref> |
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The first interaction of the INA with the British-Indian forces was during the months during the [[First Arakan offensive]], between December 1942 and March 1943. The morale of ''Sepoys'' during this time was low and knowledge about the INA was minimal. The INA's special services agents led a successful operation during this time in encouraging the Indian troops to defect to the INA. By the end of March 1945, however, the ''Sepoys'' in the British-Indian Army were reinvigorated and perceived the men of the INA to be savage turncoats and cowards. Senior British officers in the Indian Army considered them "rabble".<ref name=Toyexix/> Historians [[Christopher Bayly]] and Tim Harper mention that sepoys in field units shot captured or wounded INA men, relieving their British officers of the complex task of formulating a formal plan for captured men.<ref name=Marston2014p118>{{Harvnb|Marston|2014|p=118}}</ref> After Singapore was retaken, Mountbatten ordered the INA's war memorial to its fallen soldiers to be blown up.<ref name=Fayp523>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=523}}</ref> |
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As the story of the INA unfolded in post-war India, the view of Indian soldiers on the INA – and on their own position during the war – also changed.<ref name=Edwards93>{{Harvnb|Edwards|1963|p=93}}</ref> The Raj observed with increasing disquiet and unease the spread of pro-INA sympathies within the troops of the British-Indian forces.<ref name=Sarkar419/> In February 1946, while the trials were still going on, a general strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy rapidly [[Bombay Mutiny|deteriorated into a mutiny]] incorporating ships and shore establishments of the RIN throughout India. The mutineers raised slogans invoking Subhas Bose and the INA, demanding an end to the trials. The mutiny received widespread public support.<ref name=James598/> In some places in the British-Indian Army, non-commissioned Officers started ignoring orders from British superiors. In [[Madras]] and [[Pune]] British garrisons faced revolts from within the ranks of the British-Indian Army. These were suppressed by force.<ref name=James598>{{Harvnb|James|2000|p=598}}</ref><ref name=James596>{{Harvnb|James|2000|p=596}}</ref> At the conclusion of the first trial, when the sentences of deportation were commuted, Fay records Claude Auchinleck as having sent a "personal and secret" letter to all senior British officers, explaining:<ref name=Fay517>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=517}}</ref> {{blockquote|... practically all are sure that any attempt to enforce the sentence would have led to chaos in the country at large, and probably to mutiny and dissension in the Army, culminating in its dissolution.}} |
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An Officers’ Training School for INA officers and the Azad School for the civilian volunteers were set up to provide training to the recruits. A youth wing of the INA, comprised of 45 Young Indians personally chosen by Bose and affectionately known as the '''Tokyo Boys''', were also sent to Japan’s Imperial Military Academy to train as fighter pilots. Also, possibly the first time in Asia, and even the only time outside the [[USSR]], a women's regiment, the [[Rani Lakshmibai|Rani of Jhansi]] regiment was raised as a combat force. |
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[[Image:Jhansi_Trooper.JPG|thumb|200px|left|A soldier of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment in training, c 1940s.]] <!-- FAIR USE of Jhansi_Trooper.JPG: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Jhansi_Trooper.JPG for rationale --> |
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==Influence== |
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The anti-British feeling on the island of [[Sri Lanka]] was high, especially after the imprisonment of the leaders of the independence movement, the [[Lanka Sama Samaja Party]] in [[1941]]. The Japanese were in secret contact with two junior Sri Lankan politicians, [[Junius Jayawardene|JR Jayawardene]] and [[Dudley Senanayake]]. In 1942, the Ceylon Garrison Artillery in the [[Cocos Islands]] mutinied, with the aim of handing the islands over to the Japanese, in emulation of their Indian cousins on [[Christmas Island]], However, the [[Cocos Islands Mutiny]] failed. [[Sri Lanka]]ns in [[Singapore]] and [[Malaya]] formed the 'Lanka Regiment' of the Indian National Army. An abortive plan was made to land these troops in Sri Lanka by [[submarine]]. |
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===World War II=== |
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The army's relationship to the Japanese was an uncomfortable one. Bose wished to establish his political independence from the regime that sponsored him (he had, in fact, led protests against the Japanese expansion into Manchuria, and supported Chiang Kai-Shek during the 1930s), but his complete dependence on them for arms and resources made this difficult. On the Japanese side, members of the high command had been personally impressed by Bose, and were thus willing to grant him some latitude; more importantly, the Japanese were interested in maintaining the support of a man who had been able to mobilize large numbers of Indian expatriates--including, most importantly, 40,000 of the 45,000 Indians captured by the Japanese at [[Battle of Singapore|Singapore]]. |
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Sidney Bradshaw Fay concludes that the INA was not significant enough to beat the British-Indian Army by military strength. He also writes that the INA was aware of this and formulated its own strategy of avoiding set-piece battles, gathering local and popular support within India and instigating revolt within the British-Indian Army to overthrow the Raj.<ref name=Fay138>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=138}}</ref> Moreover, the [[Forward Bloc]] underground movement within India had been crushed well before the offensives opened in the Burma–Manipur theatre, depriving the army of any organised internal support.<ref name=Sarkar411/> However, despite its small numerical strength and lack of heavy weapons, its special services group played a significant part in halting the [[First Arakan Offensive]] while still under Mohan Singh's command.<ref name=Baylyl&Harperforgottenarmiesp273>{{Harvnb|Bayly|Harper|2005|p=273}}</ref> The propaganda threat of the INA and lack of concrete intelligence on the unit early after the fall of Singapore made it a threat to Allied war plans in Southeast Asia, since it threatened to destroy the ''Sepoys''' loyalty to a British-Indian Army that was demoralised from continuing defeats.<ref name=Fay410>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=410}}</ref> There were reports of INA operatives successfully infiltrating Commonwealth lines during the Offensive. This caused British intelligence to begin the "[[Jiffs]]" propaganda campaign and to create "''Josh''" groups to improve the morale and preserve the loyalty of the sepoys as consolidation began to prepare for the defence of Manipur.<ref name=Aldrich163>{{Harvnb|Aldrich|2000|p=163}}</ref><ref name=Aldrich159>{{Harvnb|Aldrich|2000|p=159}}</ref> These measures included imposing a complete news ban on Bose and the INA that was not lifted until four days after the fall of Rangoon two years later.<ref name=Fay218>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=218}}</ref><ref name=Sareen1996p40>{{Harvnb|Sareen|1996|p=40}}</ref> |
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During the Japanese ''U-Go'' offensive towards Manipur in 1944, the INA played a crucial (and successful) role in diversionary attacks in Arakan and in the Manipur Basin itself, where it fought alongside Mutaguchi's 15th Army.<ref name=Faye289>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=289}}</ref> INA forces protected the flanks of the assaulting Yamamoto force at a critical time as the latter attempted to take Imphal.<ref name="Toye1959207"/><ref name=Toye1959210>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=210}}</ref> During the Commonwealth Burma Campaign, the INA troops fought in the battles [[Battle of Irrawaddy|of Irrawaddy]] [[Battle of Meiktilla|and Meiktilla]],<ref name=Fay316>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=316–317}}</ref> supporting the Japanese offensive and tying down Commonwealth troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=332–333}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Slim|1961|p=425}}</ref> |
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The clarion call of the INA was "Jai Hind" (meaning ''Victory to India'') and "Give me blood and I will give you freedom". |
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===Indian independence=== |
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Japanese Army assigned to advising the Indian Army were officers [[Hideo Iwakuro]] and [[Saburo Isoda]]. |
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{{See also|Bombay Mutiny}} |
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The first INA trial, which was held in public, became a rallying point for the independence movement from the autumn of 1945.<ref name=Sarkar420/><ref name=Sarkar411/><ref name="Fay 1993 p=496,498,499"/> The release of INA prisoners and the suspension of the trials came to be the dominant political campaign, superseding the campaign for independence.<ref name=BoseandJalal134>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|p=134}}</ref> Christopher Bayly notes that the "INA was to become a much more powerful enemy of the British empire in defeat than it had been during its ill-fated triumphal march on Delhi."<ref name="Marston2014p118"/> The Viceroy's journal describes the autumn and winter of 1945–1946 as "The Edge of a Volcano".<ref name=Sarkar411/> The setting of the trial at Red Fort was taken by Indian public as a deliberate taunt by the British Raj over the vanquished INA, recalling the INA's battle cries of unfurling the Indian tricolour over the Red Fort.<ref name=Toyexix/> Many compared the trials to that of [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]], the last Mughal emperor tried in the same place after the failed [[1857 uprising]].<ref name=Fay472>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=472}}</ref> Support for the INA grew rapidly and their continued detention and news of impending trials was seen an affront to the movement for independence and to Indian identity itself.<ref name=Singh99>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=99}}</ref> It was further feared that the Congress would exploit the INA to gain mass support against the Raj and possibly start an armed struggle with weapons smuggled from Burma.<ref name=Singh41/><ref name=Marston129>{{Harvnb|Marston|2014|p=129}}</ref> Nehru was suspected of using INA men to train Congress volunteers.<ref name=Singh41/> The political effects of the INA trials were enormous and were felt around India as late as 1948, much to the chagrin of the Congress government in independent India,<ref name="Green68"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Green|1948|p=54}}</ref> which feared that pro-INA sympathies could help alternative sources of power.<ref name=Jamesp596to598>{{Harvnb|James|2000|pp=596–598}}</ref> |
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Historians such as [[Sumit Sarkar]], [[Sugata Bose]], and [[Ayesha Jalal]] conclude that the INA trials and its after-effects brought a decisive shift in British policy towards independence Indian.<ref name=BoseandJalal134/><ref name=Sarkar412/> Particularly disturbing was the overt and public support for the INA by the soldiers of the Indian Army and the mutinies.<ref name=BoseandJalal134/><ref name=Sarkar412>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=412}}</ref> The Congress's rhetoric preceding the 1946 elections gave the Raj reasons to fear a revival of the [[Quit India Movement]] of 1942.<ref name=Sarkar412/> Gandhi noted:<ref name=BoseandJalal134/> |
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==Rise and Fall of the INA== |
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{{blockquote|... the whole country has been roused ... even the regular forces have been stirred into a new political consciousness and have begun to think in terms of independence ...}} |
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===British colonies=== |
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[[Image: INA_Jubilation.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Jubilant INA and Japanese troops after capturing a post on the Indo-Burmese Border.]] <!-- FAIR USE of INA_Jubilation.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:INA_Jubilation.jpg for rationale --> |
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{{See also|Royal Air Force mutiny}} |
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After the war ended, the story of the INA and the Indian Legion was seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings across its empire, the British Government forbade the [[BBC]] from broadcasting their story.<ref name=ThomsonBBC>{{cite news |
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| author = Thomson M |
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| publisher = BBC |
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| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3684288.stm |
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| title= Hitler's secret Indian Army |
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| access-date=2007-09-02 |
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| date=2004-09-23}}</ref> The use of Indian troops for the restoration of Dutch and French rule in [[Vietnam]] and [[Indonesia]] fed into the already growing resentment within the forces.<ref name=McMillan155>{{Harvnb|McMillan|2006|p=155}}</ref> Indian troops sent to suppress [[Sukarno]]'s agitations in Indonesia in 1946 rapidly identified with the nationalist sentiments in the previous Dutch colony.<ref name=Sengupta84>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=84}}</ref> The [[South East Asia Command]] reported growing sympathy for the INA and dislike of the Dutch.<ref name=Sengupta83and84>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|pp=83–84}}</ref> There were similar pro-nationalist sentiments among Indian troops sent to Vietnam, Thailand and Burma. This led to the realisation by 1946 that the British-Indian Army, the bulwark of the policing force in the British colonies, could not be used as an instrument of British power.<ref name=Sengupta85>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=85}}</ref> INA-inspired strikes emerged throughout Britain's colonies in Southeast Asia. In January 1946, [[Royal Air Force Mutiny|protests]] started at [[Royal Air Force]] bases in Karachi and spread rapidly to Singapore. This was followed by a full-scale mutiny by a British Army unit in Singapore. In British Malaya, men of the Parachute Regiment refused to obey orders from their officers.<ref name=Sengupta82>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=82}}</ref> Authors like Nilanjana Sengupta attribute these to a combination of dissatisfaction over pay and work conditions and conflicts of comradeship over the INA trials.<ref name=Sengupta83>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=83}}</ref> Former INA members in Malaya identified closely with the left-wing organisations in opposing British colonial authority. The majority of prominent left-wing union leaders in Malaya after the war were members of the INA. The activities of the trade unions in the newly established Tamil schools were particularly influential, leading to the establishment of an inspector system by the British to supervise the curriculum and teaching in these schools.<ref name=LebraROJ111/> Joyce Lebra notes that the INA had a particularly strong unifying influence over ethnic Indians residing in Malaya. Lebra concludes that the experience of the INA was useful in challenging British authority in the post-war period in Malaya, and in improving the socio-economic conditions of the Indian community.<ref name=LebraROJ111/> |
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== |
==Controversies== |
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British and Commonwealth troops viewed the recruits as traitors and [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan|Axis collaborators]].<ref name=Fay417/><ref name=Fay547>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=547}}</ref><ref name=Fay5>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=5}}</ref> Almost 40,000 Indian soldiers in Malaya did not join the army and remained as PoWs. Many were sent to work in the [[Death Railway]], suffered hardships and nearly 11,000 died under Japanese internment.<ref name=Menon1997p225>{{Harvnb|Menon|1997|p=225}}</ref> Many of them cited the oath of allegiance they had taken to the King among reasons not to join a Japanese-supported organisation, and regarded the recruits of the INA as traitors for having forsaken their oath. Commanders in the British-Indian Army like Wavell later highlighted the hardships this group of soldiers suffered, contrasting them with the troops of the INA.<ref name=Menon1997p225/> Many British soldiers held the same opinion.<ref name=Toye1959pxiv/> Hugh Toye and Peter Fay point out that the First INA consisted of a mix of recruits joining for various reasons, such as nationalistic leanings, Mohan Singh's appeals, personal ambition or to protect men under their own command from harm.<ref name=Fay207>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=207}}</ref> Fay notes some officers like Shah Nawaz Khan were opposed to Mohan Singh's ideas and tried to hinder what they considered a collaborationist organisation.<ref name=Fay87to100>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=87–100}}</ref> However, both historians note that Indian civilians and former INA soldiers all cite the tremendous influence of Subhas Bose and his appeal to patriotism in rejuvenating the INA. Fay discusses the topic of loyalty of the INA soldiers, and highlights that in Shah Nawaz Khan's trial it was noted that officers of the INA warned their men the possibility of having to fight the Japanese after having fought the British, to prevent Japan exploiting post-war India.<ref name=Aldrich163/><ref name=Fay461to463>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=461–463}}</ref> Carl Vadivella Belle suggested in 2014 that among the local Indians and ex-British-Indian Army volunteers in Malaya, there was a proportion who joined due to the threat of conscription as Japanese labour troops. Recruitment also offered local Indian labourers security from continual semi-starvation of the estates and served as a barrier against Japanese tyranny.<ref name=Belle199/> |
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''Main article [[Burma Campaign#Japan's Arakan offensive|Arakan Offensive]] |
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INA troops were alleged to engage in or be complicit in torture of Allied and Indian prisoners of war.<ref name="Fay423to424"/> Fay in his 1993 history analyses war-time press releases and field counter-intelligence directed at ''Sepoys''. He concludes that the ''Jiffs'' campaign promoted the view that INA recruits were weak-willed and traitorous Axis collaborators, motivated by selfish interests of greed and personal gain. He concludes that the allegations of torture were largely products of the ''Jiffs'' campaign.<ref name=Fay417/><ref name=Fay426>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=426}}</ref><ref name=Fay290>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=290–292}}</ref> He supports his conclusion by noting that isolated cases of torture had occurred, but allegations of widespread practice of torture were not substantiated in the charges against defendants in the Red Fort trials.<ref name=Fay427>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=427}}</ref><ref name=Fay461>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=461}}</ref> Published memoirs of several veterans, including that of [[William Slim]], portray the INA troops as incapable fighters and as untrustworthy.<ref name=Fay293>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=293}}</ref> Toye noted in 1959 that individual desertions occurred in the withdrawal from Imphal.<ref name=Toyep203>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=203}}</ref> Fay concluded that stories of INA desertions during the battle and the initial retreat into Burma were largely exaggerated.<ref name=Fay290to293>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=290–293}}</ref> The majority of desertions occurred much later, according to Fay, around the battles at Irrawaddy and later around Popa. Fay specifically discusses Slim's portrayal of the INA, pointing out what he concludes to be inconsistencies in Slim's accounts.<ref name=Fay289to291>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=289–291}}</ref> Fay also discusses memoirs of Shah Nawaz, where Khan claims INA troops were never defeated in battle. Fay criticises this too as exaggerated. He concludes the opinions held by Commonwealth war veterans such as Slim were an inaccurate portrayal of the unit, as were those of INA soldiers themselves.<ref name="Fay290"/> Harkirat Singh notes that British officers' personal dislike for Subhas Chandra Bose may have prejudiced their judgement of the INA itself.<ref name=Singh41/> |
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In [[March]] [[1944]], the Japanese 15th army began its offensive into India's easern frontier. The plans for the offensive directed three divisions from [[Masakazu Kawabe|Kawabe]]'s Burma Area Army to intiate a diversionary attack at Arakan and cover the southern coast while another two divisions watched [[Joseph Stilwell|Stillwell]] and Chiang Kai Shek]]'s forces in the north. In the centre, three divisions from [[Mutaguchi Renya|Mutaguchi]]'s 15th army were push into Manipur to capture Imphal, scattering British forces and forestalling any offensive movements against Burma. |
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==Commemorations== |
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{{Expand|date=June 2007}} |
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{{See also|INA Martyr's Memorial|Former Indian National Army Monument}} |
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[[File:Former Indian National Army Monument.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The [[Commemorative plaque|plaque]] erected by the National Heritage Board at [[Esplanade Park]], marking the INA Monument site in [[Singapore]]]] |
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[[File:Azad Hind stamps released by Indian National Army in display at Netaji Birth Place Museum, Cuttack, Odisha, India.jpg|thumb|Postage stamps released by Indian National Army in display at Netaji Birth Place Museum, [[Cuttack]]]] |
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The INA is memorialised in the ''Swatantrata Sainani Smarak'', which is located at the [[Salimgarh Fort]] in [[Delhi]], adjacent to the Red Fort.<ref name=Mehta2006p272>{{Harvnb|Mehta|2006|p=272}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.roseindia.net/travel/india/delhi/salimgarh-fort-delhi.shtml | title=On I-Day eve, India forgets INA memorial | work=Rose India | access-date=2011-08-12}}</ref> Its exhibits include the Indian National Army uniform worn by Colonel Prem Sahgal, riding boots and coat buttons of Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon and photographs of Subhas Chandra Bose. A separate gallery holds material and photographs from excavations carried out by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] inside the fort in 1995. The [[INA Martyr's Memorial|Indian National Army Memorial]] at Moirang, Manipur, commemorates the place where the flag of ''Azad Hind'' was raised by Col. Shaukat Hayat Malik. Moirang was the first Indian territory captured by the INA.<ref name=Toye1959p198&215/><ref>{{cite web |
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| publisher = National Heritage Board of Singapore| url=http://www.museum.org.sg/PE/sites_trails/civic_district_trail.html| title=Heritage Sites and Trails in Singapore| access-date=2007-07-07 |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928221937/http://www.museum.org.sg/PE/sites_trails/civic_district_trail.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-09-28}}</ref> |
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The INA War Memorial at Singapore commemorating the "Unknown Warrior" of the INA was unveiled by Bose in July 1945. Situated at the [[Esplanade Park]], it was destroyed on Mountbatten's orders when Allied troops reoccupied the city. In 1995, the National Heritage Board of Singapore, with financial donations from the Indian community in Singapore, erected the [[Former Indian National Army Monument]] at the site where the old memorial stood. The site is now officially one of the historical sites of Singapore.<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Indian National Army (I.N.A.) Martyrs' Memorial Complex| url=http://www.inamoirang.com/l| title=Indian National Army Martyrs' Memorial Complex| access-date=2017-08-15| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130222312/http://www.inamoirang.com/l| archive-date=30 November 2018| url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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===Imphal=== |
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{{Main|Battle of Imphal|Battle of Kohima}} |
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{{Expand|date=June 2007}} |
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At Imphal, the capital of the state of Manipur in North-East India, the Japanese from March until July 1944 attempted to destroy the Allied forces there. This would allow thme to enter India itself and cut supplies to China. They were however driven back into Burma with heavy losses. Together with the Battle of Kohima, taking place at the same time, these actions were the turning point of the Burma Campaign when the Allies went on the offensive and pushed the Japanese out of Burma. |
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The INA's [[battle cry]], ''[[Jai Hind]]'', was declared the "national greeting" of India by Nehru and remains a popular nationalist greeting.<ref name=Desai2011>{{Harvnb|Desai|2011|p=}}</ref> Today it is used by all Indian prime ministers to conclude their [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] speeches.<ref name=Desai2011/> The cry became independent India's [[Jai Hind Post-mark|first commemorative post mark]] on 15 August 1947.<ref name=Bayanwala/> The first [[Postage stamps and postal history of India|postage stamps]] issued by Independent India are called the ''Jai Hind'' series of stamps, showing the [[Indian flag]] with the letters ''Jai Hind'' in the top right hand corner.<ref name=Bayanwala>{{cite web |
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===Mount Popa=== |
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|author = Ashok Kumar Bayanwala |
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{{Expand|date=June 2007}} |
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|publisher = Stamps of india |
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Although Japanese troops saw much of the combat in India against the British, the INA was certainly by itself an effective combat force, having faced British and allied troops and making their mark in the [[Battle of Imphal]], as well as the [[Burma Campaign#First Arakan campaign|battles of Arakan]] and Burma . On [[18 April]] , [[1944]] the [[suicide]] squads led by Col. Shaukat Malik broke through the British defence and captured [[Moirang]] in [[Manipur]]. The Azad Hind administration took control of the this independent Indian territory.<ref>''The Hindustan Times'' http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/enlisting9.htm</ref>. Following Moirang, the advancing INA breached the [[Kohima road]], posing a threat to the British positions in both [[Silchar]] and [[Kohima]]. The Azad Brigade advanced, by outflanking the Commonwealth positions. Col. Gulzara Singh's column had penetrated 250 miles into India. However, INA's most serious, and ultimately fatal, limitations were the reliance on Japanese logistics and supplies and the total air-dominance of the allies, which, along with a supply line deluged by torrential rain, frustrated the INA's and the Japanese bid to take [[Imphal]]. The [[Battle of Imphal|Siege of Imphal]] ended in failure, with the Commonwealth units under the command of [[William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim|General Slim]] initially holding their positions and then counter-attacking, the Japanese forces in detail and forcing them to retreat. |
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|url = http://stampsofindia.com/readroom/b002.htm |
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|title = Art in miniature |
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|access-date = 2011-08-11 |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064322/http://stampsofindia.com/readroom/b002.htm |
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|archive-date = 28 September 2011 |
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|df = dmy-all |
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}}</ref> These were a part of the series issued on 15 August 1947.<ref name=Footprint>{{cite news |
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| author = Bhaskaran, S.T. |
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| url=http://www.hindu.com/2000/12/16/stories/13161109.htm |
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| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020327172800/http://www.hindu.com/2000/12/16/stories/13161109.htm |
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| url-status=dead |
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| archive-date=2002-03-27 |
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| title= Footprints of history |
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| access-date=2007-10-16 |
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| location=Chennai, India |
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| work = [[The Hindu]] |
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| date=2000-12-16 |
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}}</ref> Commemorative postage stamps were also issued by the Indian government in 1968 and 1993 respectively to commemorate the 25th and the 50th anniversaries of the establishment of ''Azad Hind'' at Singapore.<ref>{{cite news |
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| author = Healey, Beth |
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| work = [[The New York Times]] |
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|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE1D8173FF930A35751C1A96F948260 |
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| title= Pastimes; Stamps |
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| access-date=2007-10-16 |
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| date=1989-12-03 |
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}}</ref> The [[India Posts|Department of Posts]] also includes the six unused [[Azad Hind stamps|''Azad Hind'' stamps]] in its commemorative book ''India's Freedom Struggle through India Postage Stamps''.<ref name=Footprint/> The ''Azad Hind Fauj Marg'' (Azad Hind Fauj Road) in [[New Delhi]] is named after the INA and houses the [[Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology]].<ref name=DHNSIT>{{cite web |
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| author = Mayank Verma |
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| work = Deccan Herald |
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| url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/458948/sulahkul-vihar-residents-await-development.html |
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| title= Sulahkul Vihar residents await development |
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| access-date=2011-08-11 |
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}}</ref> |
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== |
==In popular culture== |
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{{Main|Indian National Army in popular culture}} |
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At the conclusion of the war, the government of [[British India]] brought some of the captured INA soldiers to trial on treason charges. The prisoners would potentially face the death penalty, life imprisonment or a fine as punishment if found guilty. After the war, three officers of the INA, General [[Shah Nawaz Khan]], Colonel [[Prem Sehgal]] and Colonel [[Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon|Gurbux Singh Dhillon]] were put to trial at the [[Delhi Fort|Red Fort]] in [[Delhi]] for "waging war against the King Emperor", i.e. the British sovereign. The three defendants were defended by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], Bhulabhai Desai and others based on the defence that they should be treated as prisoners of war as they were not paid merceneraries but bona fide soldiers of a legal government, the Provisional Government of Free India, or the [[Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind]], "however misinformed or otherwise they had been in their notion of patriotic duty towards their country" and as such they recognized the free Indian state as their sovereign and not the British sovereign.<ref>Stephen P. Cohen "Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army" ''Pacific Affairs'' Vol. 36, No. 4 (Winter, 1963) pp 411-429 </ref> |
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The Indian National Army remains a significant topic of discussion in the popular history of India; it is an emotive topic which has been the subject of numerous works of literature, art, and visual media within India and outside. Some of the earliest works in print media were created at the time of the INA trials. These include works of fiction like ''Jai Hind: The Diary of a Rebel Daughter of India'' published in 1945 by Amritlal Seth. The book, a work of fiction narrating the story of a recruit of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, is believed to be loosely based on the story of Lakshmi Sahgal.<ref name=Forbes214>{{Harvnb|Forbes|1999|p=214}}</ref> In later decades works by authors like [[Amitav Ghosh]], such as his book ''[[The Glass Palace]]'', have used the backdrop of the ''Azad Hind'' and the Japanese occupation of Burma for the narrative of the story.<ref name="east">{{cite news |last=Urquhart|first=James |date=2000-08-07 |newspaper=The Independent |title=Monday Book: A 'Doctor Zhivago' for the Far East — Review of The Glass Palace}}</ref> ''[[The Day of the Scorpion]]'' and ''[[The Towers of Silence]]'', the second and third books in [[Paul Mark Scott|Paul Scott]]'s ''[[Raj Quartet]]'', mention ''Jiffs'' in the political and social context in which the term found use in the [[Fourteenth Army (United Kingdom)|Eastern Army]] during the war. The 1984 British TV series ''[[The Jewel in the Crown (TV series)|The Jewel in the Crown]]'', based on Scott's quartet, also includes the role of the INA as part of the political backdrop of the story.<ref name=Fayp4>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=4}}</ref> |
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In visual media, the INA has been the subject of a number of documentaries. ''The War of The Springing Tiger'' made by [[Granada Television]] for [[Channel 4]] in 1984 examined the role of the Indian National Army in the Second World War, the motivation of its soldiers and explored its role in the independence movement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=ix}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |
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The [[Indian National Congress]] and the [[Muslim League]] both made the release of the three defendants an important political issue during the agitation for independence of 1945-6. Beyond the on-going campaigns of noncooperation and nonviolent protest, this spread to include mutinies and wavering support within the British Indian Army. This movement marked the last major campaign in which the forces of the Congress and the Muslim League aligned together; the Congress tricolor and the green flag of the League were flown together at protests. In spite of this aggressive and widespread opposition, the court martial was carried out, and all three defendants were sentenced to deportation for life. This sentence, however, was never carried out, as the immense public pressure of the demonstrations forced [[Claude Auchinleck]], Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, to release all three defendants. Most of the I.N.A. soldiers were set free after cashiering and forfeiture of pay and allowance.<ref>Nirad C. Chaudhuri "Subhas Chandra Bose-His Legacy and Legend" ''Pacific Affairs'' Vol. 26, No. 4 (Dec. 1953), pp. 349-350 </ref> On the recommendation of [[Lord Mountbatten]], and agreed by [[Nehru]], as a precondition for [[Independence]] the I.N.A. soldiers were not reinducted into the Indian Army. |
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| publisher = British Film Institute| url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/391314?view=synopsis| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416012741/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/391314?view=synopsis| url-status=dead| archive-date=2008-04-16| |
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title=Synopses The War of The Springing Tiger |
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| access-date=2007-07-09 |
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}}</ref> |
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In 1999 Film India released a documentary, ''The Forgotten Army''. Directed by [[Kabir Khan (director)|Kabir Khan]] and produced by Akhil Bakshi, it followed what was called the ''Azad Hind Expedition'' between 1994 and 1995, retracing the route taken by the INA from Singapore to Imphal, before ending at Red Fort. Amongst the members of the expedition team were Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, Lakshmi Sahgal and Captain S.S. Yadava, an INA veteran and once the general secretary of the All India INA Committee. The documentary went on to win the Grand Jury Prize at the Film South Asia festival in 1999.<ref>{{cite web |
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|author = Dutt, Nirupama |
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|work = Indian Express |
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|url = http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980622/17351114.html |
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|title = A forgotten army marches again |
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|access-date = 2007-07-07 |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926213952/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980622/17351114.html |
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|archive-date = 26 September 2007 |
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|df = dmy-all |
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}}</ref> |
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The [[National Archives of Singapore]] digitised its available resources in 2007 as ''Historical Journey of the Indian National Army''.<ref>{{cite web| publisher = National Archives of Singapore| url = http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/index.htm| title = Historical Journey of the Indian National Army| access-date = 2007-07-07| archive-date = 11 July 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070711014104/http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/index.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2004, the [[Indian Legion]] in Europe was the subject of a BBC magazine article authored by Mike Thomson, but it did not attempt to distinguish the differences between the Legion and the INA.<ref name=ThomsonBBC/> The ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', a large broadsheet in India, dedicates a part of its website to INA resources as ''Indian National Army in East Asia.''<ref>{{cite web |
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|author = Das Sitanshu |
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|work = Hindustan Times |
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|url = http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/indiannationalarmy.htm |
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|title = Indian National Army in East Asia |
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|access-date = 2007-07-07 |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702000512/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/indiannationalarmy.htm |
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|archive-date = 2 July 2007 |
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|df = dmy-all |
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}}</ref> |
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[[Indian cinema]] has also seen a number of films in many different [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], where the INA is a significant part of the narrative. These include ''Pahla Admi'' by [[Bimal Roy]] and ''Samadhi'' by Ramesh Saigal, both produced in 1950 based on fictional INA veterans.<ref name=Bose146>{{Harvnb|Bose|2006|p=146}}</ref><ref name=Dhawan>{{cite web |
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Independent India's attitude to the INA was somewhat confused: on one hand, following the recommendations of Lord Mountbatten, the INA soldiers were not permitted to re-enroll in the Indian Army; on the other, members of the INA received an Indian state pension as freedom fighters which Indian volunteers for the British Indian Army during World War II did not. |
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| author =Dhawan, M.L. |
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| work = The Tribune| |
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==Consequences of the I.N.A. Trials== |
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url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070510/1857/main12.htm| |
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[[Image:INA_Memorial_1945.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Subhas Chandra Bose laying foundation stone of INA War Memorial, Singapore, 8 July 1945.]] <!-- FAIR USE of INA_Memorial_1945.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:INA_Memorial_1945.jpg for rationale --> |
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title=Freedom struggle through Hindi films |
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[[Image:Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Demolition of INA War Memorial by the British, 1945.]] <!-- FAIR USE of Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg for rationale --> |
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| access-date=2007-07-09 |
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}}</ref> More recently, ''[[Indian (1996 film)|Indian]]'', a 1996 [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film directed by [[S. Shankar]], incorporates a lead character (played by [[Kamal Haasan|Kamal Hassan]]) in its story who is a veteran of the INA. [[Shyam Benegal]] produced ''[[Netaji: The Forgotten Hero]]'' in 2004, which traces the last five years of Subhas Chandra Bose. Benegal describes the story of the INA in small details in his film whilst focusing on its leader.<ref name=Dhawan/> The film was also widely noted for [[A. R. Rahman]]'s music. The INA's marching song, ''Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja'', has since become a famous patriotic song in India. Today it is in use as the regimental quick march of the [[Parachute Regiment (India)|Indian Parachute regiment]].{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} |
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Whether as a measure of the pain that the allies suffered in Imphal and Burma or as an act of vengeance, Lord Mountbatten, Head of Southeast Asia Command, ordered the INA Memorial to its fallen soldiers destroyed when the Singapore was recaptured in 1945.<ref>[http://www.s1942.org.sg/indian_national_army/memorial.htm '''Historical Journey of the Indian National Army. INA war Memorial in Singapore.''' National Archive of Singapopre] URL accessed on 20 Aug 06 </ref> |
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More recently, a 2017 Hindi movie Rangoon, starring Kangna Ranaut, Saif Ali Khan, Shahid Kapoor is based against the backdrop of the INA presence in Rangoon, with the movie centred around the protagonists trying to get across a jewelled sword to the INA. In 2020 [[Amazon Prime Video]] released a five-part series called [[The Forgotten Army - Azaadi Ke Liye]]! Which tells the story of the INA through the eyes of one of its Captains and the woman he loves. In 2017 only, a show was released namely, Bose: Dead/Alive, it showed Netaji's mysterious disappearance in 1945. In this show too Azad Hind Fauj was shown. |
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It has been suggested later that Mountbatten's actions may have been to erase completely the records of INA's existence, to prevent the seeds of the idea of a revolutionary socialist liberation force from spreading into the vestiges of its colonies amidst the spectre of cold-war politics already taking shape at the time, and had haunted the Colonial powers before the war.<ref> Lebra, Joyce C., Jungle Alliance: Japan and the Indian National Army, Singapore, Asia Pacific Library</ref><ref>Borra R. Subhash Chandra Bose. Journal of Historical Review, 3, no. 4 (Winter 1982), pp. 407-439</ref> In 1995, the National Heritage Board of Singapore marked the place as a historical site. A [[Former Indian National Army Monument|Cenotaph has since been erected]] at the site where the memorial stood. |
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After the war ended, the story of the INA and the Free India Legion was seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings—not just in India, but across its empire—the British Government forbid the [[BBC]] from broadcasting their story.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3684288.stm '''Hitler's Secret Indian Army''' Last Section: '''Mutinies'''] URL accessed on 08-Aug-06</ref>. However, the stories of the trials at the [[Red Fort]] filtered through. Newspapers reported at the time of the trials that some of the INA soldiers held at Red Fort had been [[execute]]d,<ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_2_45.gif '''Many I.N.A. men already executed, Lucknow '''. The Hindustan Times, November 2, 1945]. URL Accessed 11-Aug-06</ref> which only succeeded in causing further protests. |
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During the trial, [[Bombay Mutiny|mutiny broke out in the Royal Indian Navy]], incorporating ships and shore establishements of the RIN throughout India, from [[Karachi]] to [[Bombay]] and from [[Vizag]] to [[Calcutta]]. The most significant, if disconcerting factor for the Raj, was the significant militant public support that it received. At some places, NCOs in the [[British Indian Army]] started ignoring orders from British superiors. In [[Madras]] and [[Pune]], the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the British Indian Army. |
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Another Army mutiny took place at Jabalpur during the last week of February 1946, soon after the Navy mutiny at Bombay. This was suppressed by force, including the use of the bayonet by British troops. It lasted about two weeks. After the mutiny, about 45 persons were tried by court martial. 41 were sentenced to varying terms of imprisonment or dismissal. In addition, a large number were discharged on administrative grounds. While the participants of the Naval Mutiny were given the freedom fighters' pension, the Jabalpur mutineers got nothing. They even lost their service pension. |
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Reflecting on the factors that guided the British decision to relinquish the [[British Raj|Raj]] in India, [[Clement Attlee]], the then British [[prime minister]], cited several reasons, the most important of which were the INA activities of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, which weakened the Indian Army - the foundation of the British Empire in India- and the RIN Mutiny that made the British realise that the Indian armed forces could no longer be trusted to prop up the ''Raj''.<ref>Dhanjaya Bhat, Writing in ''The Tribune'', Sunday, February 12, 2006. Spectrum Suppl. Which phase of our freedom struggle won for us Independence? http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060212/spectrum/main2.htm.URL accessed on 17-Jul-2006 </ref>. |
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Although Britain had made, at the time of the [[Cripps' mission]] in 1942, a commitment<ref> Judith Brown ''Modern India. The making of an Asian Democracy'' (Oxford University Press) 1999 (2nd Edition) pp328-330 </ref> to grant dominion status<ref>James L. ''Raj; Making and unmaking of British India. Abacus. 1997. p. 557''</ref> to India after the war this suggests that, contrary to the usual narrative of India's independence struggle, (which generally focusses on Congress and Mahatma Gandhi), the INA and the revolts, mutinies, and public resentment it germinated were an important factor in the complete withdrawal of the Raj from India. |
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Why would, however, the story of the INA and the [[Free India Legion]] be forbidden from public broadcast and archived beyond public reach?<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3684288.stm BBC, Hitler's Secret Indian Army] URL accessed 09-Aug-06</ref> In 1946, with Britain attempting to hold on to its declining empire, it is certainly imaginable what inspiration the story of Bose and his revolutionary army would have been to the rising nationalism in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. One only needs to analyse the examples of the charismatic legends of [[Chairman Mao]] and the Chinese uprisings on [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] to understand what proportions the INA's legend would have reached and how that, in the hands of revolutionary nationalists would have destabillised what would remain of the [[British Empire]] after they left India. The mutinies and movements mentioned above proves this in the context of India. However, that still does not answer why these stories have been ignored or even actively suppressed by the [[Indian government]] after Independence.<ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_17_70.gif '''Radhakrishnan met Netaji in Moscow, says witness.''']The Hindustan Times, November 17, 1970. URL Accessed on 11-Aug-06. [http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/htarchive_51.htm# Source URL] </ref><ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/jan_23_71.gif '''Gandhi, others had agreed to hand over Netaji.''' Hindustan Times, January 23, 1971.] URL Accessed on 11-Aug-06</ref><ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050612/spectrum/main1.htm '''Interview with Capt. Lakshmi Sahgal.'''The Tribune India, Spectrum Suppl Sunday, June 12, 2005] URL accessed 09-Aug-06</ref> |
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==Troop strength== |
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Although there are slight variations in estimates, the INA is considered to have comprised about 40,000 troops when it was disbanded. The following is an estimate attributed to Lt. Colonel G.D. Anderson of British intelligence: |
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There were 45,000 Indian troops from Malaya captured and assembled in Singapore when the Japanese captured it. Of these, about 5,000 refused to join the INA. The INA at this time had 40,000 recruits. |
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The Japanese were prepared to arm 16,000. When the "first INA" collapsed, about 4,000 withdrew. |
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The "second INA", commanded by Subhash Chandra Bose, started with 12,000 troops. |
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Further recruitment of ex-Indian army personnel added about 8,000-10,000. About 18,000 Indian civilians enlisted during this time. In 1945, at the end of the INA, it consisted of about 40,000 soldiers.<ref> Peter Ward Fay ''The Forgotten Army. India's Armed Struggle for Independence 1941-45'' (Ann Arbor) 1993 pp525-6 </ref> |
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==Azad Hind decoration== |
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An "Azad Hind" (Free India) decoration was also instituted by Bose for the Indian Legion fighting alongside Germany. Both Indians and Germans were eligible for the decorations. |
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*Grand Star: "Sher-e-Hind" (Tiger of India) |
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*1st Class Star: "Sardar-e-Jang" (Leader of Battle) |
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*2nd Class Star: "Vir-e-Hind" (Hero of India) |
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*Shahid-e-Bharat: (Martyr of the Motherland) |
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==Allegations of INA brutality== |
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{{Expand|date=June 2007}} |
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==The INA as a fighting force== |
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{{Expand|date=June 2007}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]] |
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* [[Ekla Chalo Re]], a poem by [[Rabindranath Tagore]], publicized by Subhas Chandra Bose |
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* [[Centro I]], a unit of the ''Raggruppamento Centri Militari'' formed in [[Fascist Italy]] of sympathetic Indian PoWs and headed by Iqbal Shedai- an Indian resident in Rome. A section of the Centro I went to form the [[Battaglione Azad Hindostan]] before being disbanded. |
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* [[Indian Legion]] |
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* [[Legion Freies Indien]] (also known as the [[Azad Hind Legion]] or the [[Indian Infantry Regiment 950]]), predecessor to the INA, formed in [[Nazi Germany]] of Rommell's Indian PoWs from North Africa and realisation of Bose's first ideas of a [[Revolutionary Socialst]] Army. |
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* [[ |
* [[Rani of Jhansi Regiment]] |
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* [[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]] |
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* [[Burma National Army]] |
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==Notes== |
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* [[All India Forward Bloc]] |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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* [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{ |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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{{col-2}} |
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* {{Harvard reference |
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| Surname1 = Lebra |
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| Given1 = Joyce C. |
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| Year = 1971 |
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| Title = Japanese trained armies in South-East Asia |
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| URL = |
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| Publisher = New York,Columbia University Press |
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| ISBN = 0231039956 |
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}}. |
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* {{Harvard reference |
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| Surname1 = Friedman |
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| Given1 = Irving S. |
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| Year = 1940 |
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| Title = Pacific Affairs, Vol. 13, No. 1. |
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| URL = |
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| Publisher = Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia. |
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| ISBN = |
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| ISSN = 0030851X |
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}}. |
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* {{Harvard reference |
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| Surname1 = Dignan |
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| Given1 = Don. |
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| Year = 1983 |
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| Title = The Indian revolutionary problem in British Diplomacy,1914-1919. |
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| URL = |
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| Publisher = New Delhi, Allied Publishers. |
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| ISBN = |
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}}. |
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* {{Harvard reference |
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| Surname1 = Kaushik |
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| Given1 = Karuna |
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| Year = 1984 |
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| Title = Russian Revolution (1917) and Indian nationalism:Studies of Lajpat Rai, Subhash Chandra Bose and Ram Manohar Lohia |
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| URL = |
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| Publisher = Delhi, Chanakya Publications. |
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| ISBN = |
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}}. |
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* {{Harvard reference |
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| Surname1 = Brown |
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| Given1 = Emily |
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| Year = 1986 |
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| Title = (in Book Reviews; South Asia). The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 45, No. 2. |
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| URL = |
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| Publisher = Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia. |
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| ISBN = |
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| ISSN=0030851X |
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}}. |
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* {{Harvard reference |
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| Surname1 = Hauner |
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| Given1 = Milan |
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| Year = 1981 |
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| Title = India in Axis Strategy. Germany, Japan and Indian Nationalists in the Second World War |
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{{refend}} |
|||
==Further |
==Further reading== |
||
*''The Springing Tiger: A Study of a Revolutionary'' by Hugh Toye (1959). |
|||
* ''Japanese-trained armies in Southeast Asia : independence and volunteer forces in World War II'' / Joyce C. Lebra, New York : Columbia University Press, 1977 |
|||
* '' |
* ''History of the Indian National Army'' by Kalyan Kumar Ghosh (1966). |
||
* ''Jungle Alliance, Japan and the Indian National Army'' by Joyce C. Lebra (1971). |
|||
* ''Brothers Against the Raj --- A biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas Chandra Bose'' / Leonard A. Gordon, Princeton University Press, 1990 |
|||
* '' |
* ''Brothers Against the Raj — A Biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas Chandra Bose'' by Leonard A. Gordon (1990), Princeton University Press, 1990. |
||
*''The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945'' by Peter Fay (1995). |
|||
* ''Burma: The Forgotten War'', [[Jon Latimer]], London: John Murray, 2004. ISBN 978-0719565762 |
|||
*''Women Against the Raj: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment'' by Joyce C Lebra (2008). |
|||
* ''Democracy Indian style : Subhas Chandra Bose and the creation of India's political culture'' / Anton Pelinka ; translated by Renée Schell, New Brunswick, NJ : Transaction Publishers (Rutgers University Press), 2003 |
|||
* ''Subhas Chandra Bose : a biography'' / Marshall J. Getz, Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland & Co., USA, 2002 |
|||
* ''Netaji and India's freedom : proceedings of the International Netaji Seminar, 1973'' / edited by Sisir K. Bose. International Netaji Seminar (1973 : Calcutta, India), Netaji Research Bureau, Calcutta, India, 1973 |
|||
* ''Japan's Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere in World War II : selected readings and documents'' / edited and introduced by Joyce C. Lebra, Kuala Lumpur ; New York : Oxford University Press, 1975 |
|||
* ''A Concise History of India'' / Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf |
|||
* ''A History of India'' / Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund |
|||
* ''The Glass Palace'' / Amitav Ghosh, London: HarperCollins, 2001 (a novel which has a large section on the Burma front which describes the motivations of those Indian officers who joined the INA and those who did not) |
|||
* ''The Forgotten Army'' / Fay, Peter Ward : University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1995 ISBN 0-472-08342-2 |
|||
* Arsecularatne, SN, ''Sinhalese immigrants in Malaysia & Singapore, 1860-1990: History through recollections'', KVG de Silva & Sons, Colombo, 1991 |
|||
* Crusz, Noel, ''The Cocos Islands Mutiny'', Fremantle Arts Centre Press, Fremantle, WA, 2001 |
|||
* Sundaram, C.S., "A Paper Tiger: the Indian National Army in Battle, 1944-1945", in ''War & Society'', vol. 13, no. 1, May 1995, pp. 35-59. |
|||
</div> |
|||
==External links== |
==External links== |
||
* [http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Indian_National_Army From Banglapedia] |
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* [http://www.missionnetaji.org] |
|||
* [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/I_0046.htm From Banglapedia] |
|||
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/itihas/bose.htm Article on Bose] |
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/itihas/bose.htm Article on Bose] |
||
* [http://www. |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070902213838/http://www.yorozubp.com/netaji/ Speeches of Netaji] |
||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629001048/http://www.s-asian.cam.ac.uk/govt.html Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge] |
|||
* [http://www.tamilnation.org/ideology/bose.htm Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose & India's Independence] |
|||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140902125303/http://dblife.cs.wisc.edu/person/S._C._Bose Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin] |
|||
* [http://www.yorozubp.com/netaji/ Speeches of Netaji] |
|||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220043836/http://www.hindustantimes.com/ Mystery behind Netaji's Disappearance – 2] |
|||
* [http://www.yorozubp.com/netaji/75birthday/dhillon.htm The Last Straw] |
|||
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3684288.stm BBC Report: Hitler's secret Indian army] |
|||
* [http://www.yorozubp.com/netaji/speeches/withdraw.htm Why the I.N.A. withdrew] |
|||
* {{YouTube|XZ-Cjv1rnTM|Kadam kadam bhadaye ja – The INA song}} |
|||
* [http://www.s-asian.cam.ac.uk/govt.html Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge] |
|||
* [http://www.wisc.edu/southasiaoutreach/lessons/figures/bose.html Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin] |
|||
* [http://www.lokpriya.com/personalities/political/past/subhas.html Indian political personalities] |
|||
* [http://www.swordoftruth.com/swordoftruth/archives/byauthor/shamolimitra/tmbnd.html Mystery behind Netaji's Disappearance - 1] |
|||
* [http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/netajihomepage.shtml Mystery behind Netaji's Disappearance - 2] |
|||
* [http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010819/spectrum/main1.htm Mystery behind Netaji's Disappearance - 3] |
|||
* [http://www.tuhl.freeserve.co.uk/tuhl_azad_hind.htm Free Indian Legion] |
|||
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3684288.stm BBC Report: Hitler's secret Indian army] |
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/document BBC Radio programme HITLER'S INDIAN ARMY] Part of the Document Series, listen via RealPlayer. Incl. interview with the last living member of the I.N.A. |
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/standateast.shtml Stand at East] BBC Radio series on the British Indian Army especially the War against the Japanese, listen via RealPlayer. |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4521947.stm BBC report about the Indian Army fighting the Japanese during WW2] |
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*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/beyond/factsheets/makhist/makhist3_prog12a.shtml 'The Bombay Mutiny, 1946', ''Beyond the Broadcast'', BBC] |
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* [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=1720 Indische Freiwilligen Legion der Waffen-SS/Indian SS volunteer Legion] |
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* [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=2157 Infanterie-Regiment 950 indische Legion Freies Indien] |
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* [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=5800 Battaglione Azad Hindostan; Indian Volunteer forces between Italian Army] |
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* [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/BANDSTAND/armyband.html (Kadam Kadam Bhadaye Jaa .. (Every Step, Forward..)) Band of INA] |
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{{Subhas Chandra Bose}} |
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{{Indian independence movement}} |
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[[Category:Azad Hind]] |
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[[Category:Indian collaborators with Imperial Japan]] |
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[[es:Ejército Nacional Indio]] |
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[[Category:National liberation armies]] |
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[[hi:आज़ाद हिन्द फ़ौज]] |
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[[Category:Resistance against the Allied powers]] |
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Latest revision as of 20:36, 21 June 2024
Indian National Army | |
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Azad Hind Fauj | |
![]() Flag of Azad Hind | |
Active | August 1942 – September 1945 |
Country | ![]() |
Allegiance | ![]() |
Role | Guerrilla, infantry, special operations |
Size | ~43,000 Soldiers: Gandhi Brigade, Nehru Brigade, Azad Brigade, Subhas Brigade, Rani of Jhansi regiment |
Motto(s) | Ittehad, Itmad aur Qurbani (Hindustani: Unity, Faith and Sacrifice) |
March | Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja |
Engagements | World War II |
Commanders | |
Commander-in-Chief | Mohan Singh (1942) Subhas Chandra Bose (1943–1945) |
Chief of Staff | Jaganath Rao Bhonsle |
Notable commanders | Mohammed Zaman Kiani Shah Nawaz Khan Prem Sahgal |
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Monument_of_INA_Martyrs_at_Kolkata.jpg/300px-Monument_of_INA_Martyrs_at_Kolkata.jpg)
The Indian National Army (INA; Azad Hind Fauj /ˈɑːzɑːð ˈhinð ˈfɔːdʒ/; lit. 'Free Indian Army') was a collaborationist armed unit of Indian collaborators that fought under the command of the Japanese Empire.[1] It was founded by Mohan Singh on September 1942 in Southeast Asia during World War II.
It fought under the command of the Japanese military in the British campaign in the Southeast Asian theatre of WWII, with its aim to secure Indian independence from British rule.[2] The army was first formed in 1942 under Mohan Singh by Indian prisoners of war (PoWs) of the British Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and at Singapore.[3][4][5] This first INA, which had been handed over to Rash Behari Bose and Mohan Singh, collapsed and was disbanded in December that year after differences between its leadership and the Japanese military over its role in Japan's war in Asia. The INA was handed over to Subhas Chandra Bose.[6] It was revived under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose after his arrival in Southeast Asia in 1943. The army was declared to be the army of Bose's Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (the Provisional Government of Free India). The INA came to be known as the puppet army of the Japanese empire.[7][8]
Subhas Chandra Bose named the brigades/regiments of INA after Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Azad, and himself.[9] There was also an all-women regiment named after Rani of Jhansi, Lakshmibai. Under Bose's leadership, the INA drew ex-prisoners and thousands of civilian volunteers from the Indian expatriate population in Malaya (present-day Malaysia) and Burma.[10] This second INA fought under the Imperial Japanese Army against the British and Commonwealth forces in the campaigns in Burma: at Imphal and Kohima, and later against the Allied retaking of Burma.[11][12]
After the INA's initial formation in 1942, there was concern in the British Indian Army that further Indian troops would defect. This led to a reporting ban and a propaganda campaign called "Jiffs" to preserve the loyalty of the Sepoy.[13] Historians consider the INA not to have had significant influence on the war.[14]
The British Raj, never seriously threatened by the INA, charged 300 INA officers with treason in the INA trials, but eventually backtracked in the face of opposition by the Congress.[15][16] These trials became a galvanising point in the Indian Independence movement for the Indian National Congress.[17][18] A number of people associated with the INA during the war later went on to hold important roles in public life in India as well as in other countries in Southeast Asia, most notably Lakshmi Sehgal in India, and John Thivy and Janaki Athinahappan in Malaya.[19]
The military unit was associated with Imperial Japan and the other Axis powers, and accusations were levelled against INA troops of being involved and complicit in Japanese war crimes.[20] The INA's members were viewed as Axis collaborators and traitors by British soldiers and Indian PoWs who did not join the army,[21] but after the war they were seen as patriots by many Indians.[21] Although they were widely commemorated by the Indian National Congress in the immediate aftermath of Indian independence, some of the members of the INA were denied freedom fighter status by the Government of India.[22][10][21][23]
First INA
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Fujiwara_Kikan.jpg/299px-Fujiwara_Kikan.jpg)
Before the start of World War II, Japan and South-East Asia were major refuges for exiled Indian nationalists. Meanwhile, Japan had sent intelligence missions, notably under Maj. Iwaichi Fujiwara, into South Asia to gather support from the Malayan sultans, overseas Chinese, the Burmese resistance and the Indian independence movement. The Minami Kikan successfully recruited Burmese nationalists, while the F Kikan was successful in establishing contacts with Indian nationalists in exile in Thailand and Malaya.[24][25] Fujiwara, later self-described as "Lawrence of the Indian National Army" (after Lawrence of Arabia) is said to have been a man committed to the values which his office was supposed to convey to the expatriate nationalist leaders, and found acceptance among them.[25][26] His initial contact was with Giani Pritam Singh and the Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge.[25] At the outbreak of World War II in South-East Asia, 70,000 Indian troops (mostly Sikhs) were stationed in Malaya. In Japan's spectacular Malayan Campaign many Indian prisoners-of-war were captured, including nearly 45,000 after the fall of Singapore alone.[27] The conditions of service within the British-Indian Army and the social conditions in Malaya had led to dissension among these troops.[28][29] From these prisoners, the First Indian National Army was formed under Mohan Singh. Singh was an officer in the British-Indian Army who was captured early in the Malayan campaign. His nationalist sympathies found an ally in Fujiwara and he received considerable Japanese aid and support.[30] Ethnic Indians in Southeast Asia also supported the cause of Indian independence and had formed local leagues in Malaya before the war. These came together with encouragement from Japan after the occupation, forming the Indian Independence League (IIL).[31]
Although there were a number of prominent local Indians working in the IIL, the overall leadership came to rest with Rash Behari Bose, an Indian revolutionary who had lived in self-exile in Japan since World War I.[32] The League and INA leadership decided that the INA was to be subordinate to the IIL. A working council – composed of prominent members of the League and the INA leaders – was to decide on decisions to send the INA to war.[33] The Indian leaders feared that they would appear to be Japanese puppets, so a decision was taken that the INA would go to battle only when the Indian National Congress called it to do so.[34][35] Assurances of non-interference— later termed the Bidadary resolutions— were demanded of Japan; these would have amounted to a treaty with an independent government.[27] In this time, F. Kikan had been replaced by the Iwakuro Kikan (or I Kikan) headed by Hideo Iwakuro. Iwakuro's working relationship with the league was more tenuous. Japan did not immediately agree to the demands arising from the Bidadary resolutions. Differences also existed between Rash Behari and the League, not least because Rash Behari had lived in Japan for the considerable time and had a Japanese wife and a son in the Imperial Japanese Army.[36] On the other hand, Mohan Singh expected military strategy and decisions to be autonomous decisions for the INA, independent of the league.[37]
In November and December 1942, concern about Japan's intentions towards the INA led to disagreement between the INA and the League on the one hand and the Japanese on the other.[6] The INA leadership resigned along with that of the League (except Rash Behari). The unit was dissolved by Mohan Singh in December 1942, and he ordered the troops of the INA to return to PoW camps.[38][39] Mohan Singh was expected to be shot.[38]
Between December 1942 and February 1943, Rash Behari struggled to hold the INA together.[40] On 15 February 1943, the army itself was put under the command of Lt. Col. M.Z. Kiani.[41] A policy forming body was formed with Lt. Col J.R. Bhonsle (Director of the Military Bureau) in charge and clearly placed under the authority of the IIL. Under Bhonsle served Lt. Col. Shah Nawaz Khan as Chief of General Staff, Major P.K. Sahgal as Military Secretary, Major Habib ur Rahman as commandant of the Officers' Training School and Lt. Col. A.C. Chatterji (later Major A.D. Jahangir) as head of enlightenment and culture.[40][42]
Second INA
Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose was the ideal person to lead a rebel army into India came from the very beginning of F Kikan's work with captured Indian soldiers. Mohan Singh himself, soon after his first meeting with Fujiwara, had suggested that Bose was the right leader of a nationalist Indian army.[43] A number of the officers and troops – including some who now returned to prisoner-of-war camps and some who had not volunteered in the first place – made it known that they would be willing to join the INA only if it was led by Subhas Bose.[44] Bose was a nationalist. He had joined the Gandhian movement after resigning from a prestigious post in the Indian Civil Service in 1922, quickly rising in the Congress and being incarcerated repeatedly by the Raj.[45] By late 1920s he and Nehru were considered the future leaders of the Congress.[46] In the late 1920s, he was amongst the first Congress leaders to call for complete independence from Britain (Purna Swaraj), rather than the previous Congress objective of India becoming a British dominion.[46] In Bengal, he was repeatedly accused by Raj officials of working with the revolutionary movement. Under his leadership, the Congress youth group in Bengal was organised into a quasi-military organisation called the Bengal Volunteers.[47] Bose deplored Gandhi's pacifism; Gandhi disagreed with Bose's confrontations with the Raj.[46] The Congress's working committee, including Nehru, was predominantly loyal to Gandhi.[46] While openly disagreeing with Gandhi, Bose won the presidency of Indian National Congress twice in the 1930s. His second victory came despite opposition from Gandhi. He defeated Gandhi's favoured candidate, Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya, in the popular vote, but the entire working committee resigned and refused to work with Bose.[48] Bose resigned from the Congress presidency and founded his own faction within the Congress, the All India Forward Bloc.[49]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Subhas_Chandra_Bose_meeting_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/295px-Subhas_Chandra_Bose_meeting_Adolf_Hitler.jpg)
At the start of World War II, Bose was placed under house arrest by the Raj.[50] He escaped in disguise and made his way through Afghanistan and Central -Asia. He came first to the Soviet Union and then to Germany, reaching Berlin on 2 April 1941.[19][48] There he -sought to raise an army of Indian soldiers from prisoners of war captured by Germany,[51] forming the Free India Legion and the Azad Hind Radio.[52] The Japanese ambassador, Oshima Hiroshi, kept Tokyo informed of these developments.[53] From the very start of the war, the Japanese intelligence services noted from speaking to captured Indian soldiers that Bose was held in extremely high regard as a nationalist and was considered by Indian soldiers to be the right person to be leading a rebel army.[43]
In a series of meetings between the INA leaders and the Japanese in 1943, it was decided to cede the leadership of the IIL and the INA to Bose. In January 1943, the Japanese invited Bose to lead the Indian nationalist movement in East Asia.[54] He accepted and left Germany on 8 February. After a three-month journey by submarine and a short stop in Singapore, he reached Tokyo on 11 May 1943. In Tokyo, he met Hideki Tojo, the Japanese prime minister, and the Japanese High Command. He then arrived in Singapore in July 1943, where he made a number of radio broadcasts to Indians in Southeast Asia exhorting them to join in the fight for India's independence.[55]
Revival
On 4 July 1943 two days after reaching Singapore, Bose assumed the leadership of the IIL and the Indian National Army in a ceremony at Cathay Building. Bose's influence was notable. His appeal re-invigorated the INA, which had previously consisted mainly of prisoners of war: it also attracted Indian expatriates in South Asia. He famously proclaimed that Give me blood! I will give you freedom
"Local civilians joined the INA, doubling its strength. They included barristers, traders and plantation workers, as well as Khudabadi Sindhi Swarankars who were working as shop keepers; many had no military experience."[56][57] Carl Vadivella Belle estimates under Bose's dynamic appeal, membership of the IIL peaked at 350,000, while almost 100,000 local Indians in South-east Asia volunteered to join the INA, with the army ultimately reaching a force of 50,000.[56] Hugh Toye— a British Intelligence officer and author of a 1959 history of the army called The Springing Tiger— and American historian Peter Fay (author of a 1993 history called The Forgotten Army) have reached similar estimates of troop strength. The first INA is considered to have comprised about 40,000 troops, of whom about 4,000 withdrew when it was disbanded in December 1942. The Second INA started with 12,000 troops.[58] Further recruitment of former Indian Army personnel added about 8,000–10,000. About 18,000 Indian civilians also enlisted during this time.[citation needed] Belle estimates almost 20,000 were local Malayan Indians, while another 20,000 were ex-British-Indian Army members who volunteered for the INA.[56]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Gandhi_and_Subhas_Bose.jpg/220px-Gandhi_and_Subhas_Bose.jpg)
The exact organisation of the INA and its precise troop strength is not known, since its records were destroyed by the withdrawing Azad Hind Government before Rangoon was recaptured by Commonwealth forces in 1945.[59] The order of battle described by Fay (constructed from discussions with INA-veterans), nonetheless, is similar to that described of the first INA by Toye in The Springing Tiger. The 1st Division, under M.Z. Kiani, drew many ex-Indian army prisoners of war who had joined Mohan Singh's first INA. It also drew prisoners of war who had not joined in 1942. It consisted of the 2nd Guerrilla Regiment (the Gandhi Brigade) consisting of two battalions under Col. Inayat Kiani; the 3rd Guerrilla Regiment (the Azad Brigade) with three battalions under Col. Gulzara Singh; and the 4th Guerrilla Regiment (or Nehru Brigade) commanded by the end of the war by Lt. Col Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon.[60] The 1st Guerrilla Regiment – the Subhas Brigade – under Col. Shah Nawaz Khan was an independent unit, consisting of three infantry battalions. A special operations group was also to be set up called the Bahadur group (Valiant), to operate behind enemy lines.[61]
A training school for INA officers, led by Habib ur Rahman, and the Azad School for the civilian volunteers were set up to provide training to the recruits. A youth wing of the INA, composed of 45 young Indians personally chosen by Bose and known as the Tokyo Boys, was also sent to Japan's Imperial Military Academy, where its members trained as fighter pilots. A separate all-female unit was also created under Lakshmi Sahgal. This unit was intended to have combat-commitments.[62] Named Jhansi ki Rani ("Jhansi Queens") Regiment (after the legendary rebel Queen Lakshmibai of the 1857 rebellion), it drew female civilian volunteers from Malaya and Burma. The 1st Division was lightly armed. Each battalion was composed of five companies of infantry. The individual companies were armed with six antitank rifles, six Bren guns and six Vickers machine guns. Some NCOs carried hand grenades, while senior officers of the Bahadur groups attached to each unit issued hand grenades (of captured British stock) to men going forward on duty.[63]
The 2nd Division was organised under Colonel Abdul Aziz Tajik[64] It was formed largely after the Imphal offensive had started and drew large remnants of what remained of the Hindustan Field Force of the First INA. The 2nd Division consisted of the 1st Infantry Regiment, which later merged with the 5th Guerrilla Regiment to form the INA's 2nd Infantry Regiment under Col Prem Sahgal. The 1st Infantry Regiment drew many civilian volunteers from Burma and Malaya and was equipped with the largest share of the heavy armament that the INA possessed.[65] An additional 3rd Division of the INA was composed chiefly of local volunteers in Malaya and Singapore. This unit disbanded before Japan surrendered. A motor transport division was also created, but it was severely limited by lack of resources. In 1945, at the end of the INA, it consisted of about 40,000 soldiers.[66] Unlike Mohan Singh, whose assumption of the rank of general had generated opposition, Bose refused to take a rank.[67] Both the soldiers of the INA and civilians addressed Bose as Netaji ("Dear leader"), a term first used in Berlin by members of the Free India Legion.[68] In October 1943, Bose proclaimed the formation of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind, or the Provisional Government of Free India (also known as Azad Hind or Free India). The INA was declared to be the army of Azad Hind.[69]
Operations
On 23 October 1943, Azad Hind declared war against Britain and the United States.[70] Its first formal commitment came with the opening of the Japanese offensive towards Manipur, code-named U-Go. In the initial plans for invasion of India, Field Marshal Terauchi had been reluctant to confer any responsibilities to the INA beyond espionage and propaganda.[71] Bose rejected this as the role of Fifth-columnists,[71] and insisted that INA should contribute substantially in troops to form a distinct identity of an Indian-liberation army. He secured from Japanese army Chief of Staff, General Sugiyama, the agreement that INA would rank as an allied army in the offensive.[72] The advanced headquarters of Azad Hind was moved to Rangoon in anticipation of success. The INA's own strategy was to avoid set-piece battles, for which it lacked armament as well as manpower.[73] Initially it sought to obtain arms and increase its ranks by inducing British-Indian soldiers to defect. The latter were expected to defect in large numbers. Col Prem Sahgal, once military secretary to Subhas Bose and later tried in the first Red Fort trials, explained the INA strategy to Peter Fay[74] – although the war itself hung in balance and nobody was sure if the Japanese would win, initiating a popular revolution with grass-roots support within India would ensure that even if Japan ultimately lost the war, Britain would not be in a position to re-assert its colonial authority. It was planned that, once Japanese forces had broken through British defences at Imphal, the INA would cross the hills of North-East India into the Gangetic plain, where it would work as a guerrilla army.[75] This army was expected to live off the land, with captured British supplies, support, and personnel from the local population.[76]
1944
The plans chosen by Bose and Masakazu Kawabe, chief of the Burma area army, envisaged the INA being assigned an independent sector in the U-Go offensive. No INA units were to operate at less than battalion strength.[77] For operational purposes, the Subhas Brigade was placed under the command of the Japanese General Headquarters in Burma. Advance parties of the Bahadur Group also went forward with advanced Japanese units.[78] As the offensive opened, the INA's 1st Division, consisting of four guerrilla regiments, was divided between U Go and the diversionary Ha-Go offensive in Arakan.[77][79] One battalion reached as far as Mowdok in Chittagong after breaking through the British West African Division.[80][81] A Bahadur Group unit, led by Col. Shaukat Malik, took the border enclave of Moirang in early April.[82] The main body of the 1st Division was however committed to the U-Go, directed towards Manipur. Led by Shah Nawaz Khan, it successfully protected the Japanese flanks against Chin and Kashin guerrillas as Renya Mutaguchi's three divisions crossed the Chindwin river and the Naga Hills, and participated in the main offensive through Tamu in the direction of Imphal and Kohima.[11][83] The 2nd Division, under M.Z. Kiani, was placed to the right flank of the 33rd Division attacking Kohima. However, by the time Khan's forces left Tamu, the offensive had been held, and Khan's troops were redirected to Kohima. After reaching Ukhrul, near Kohima, they found Japanese forces had begun their withdrawal from the area. The INA's forces suffered the same fate as Mutaguchi's army when the siege of Imphal was broken. With little or nothing in the way of supplies, and with additional difficulties caused by the monsoon, Allied air dominance, and Burmese irregular forces, the 1st and 2nd divisions began withdrawing alongside the 15th Army and Burma Area Army. During the withdrawal through Manipur, a weakened Gandhi regiment held its position against the advancing Maratha Light Infantry on the Burma–India road while the general withdrawal was prepared.[84][85] The 2nd and 3rd INA regiments protected the flanks of the Yamamoto force successfully at the most critical time during this withdrawal,[86] but wounded and diseased men succumbed to starvation along the route. Commonwealth troops following the Japanese forces found INA dead along with Japanese troops who had died of starvation.[87] The INA lost a substantial number of men and amount of materiel in this retreat. A number of units were disbanded or used to feed into new divisions.[88]
1945
As the Allied Burma campaign began the following year, the INA remained committed to the defence of Burma and was a part of the Japanese defensive deployments. The Second Division was tasked with the defence of Irrawaddy and the adjoining areas around Nangyu, and offered opposition to Messervy's 7th Indian Division when it attempted to cross the river at Pagan and Nyangyu during Irrawaddy operations.[12][89] Later, during the Battles of Meiktila and Mandalay, the forces under Prem Sahgal were tasked with defending the area around Mount Popa from the British 17th Division, which would have exposed the flank of Heitarō Kimura's forces attempting to retake Meiktila and Nyangyu. The division was obliterated, at times fighting tanks with hand grenades and bottles of petrol.[90][91] Many INA soldiers realised that they were in a hopeless position. Many surrendered to pursuing Commonwealth forces. Isolated, losing men to exhaustion and to desertion, low on ammunition and food, and pursued by Commonwealth forces, the surviving units of the second division began an attempt to withdraw towards Rangoon. They broke through encircling Commonwealth lines a number of times before finally surrendering at various places in early April 1945.[89][92] As the Japanese situation became precarious, the Azad Hind government withdrew from Rangoon to Singapore, along with the remnants of the 1st Division and the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Nearly 6,000 troops of the surviving units of the INA remained in Rangoon under A. D. Loganathan. They surrendered as Rangoon fell and helped keep order until the Allied forces entered the city.[93]
As the Japanese withdrawal from Burma progressed, other remnants of the INA began a long march overland and on foot towards Bangkok. In what has been called an "epic retreat to safety",[94] Bose walked with his troops, refusing to leave them despite Japanese soldiers finding him transport.[95] The withdrawing forces regularly suffered casualties from Allied planes strafing them and in clashes with Aung San's Burmese resistance, as well as from Chinese guerrillas who harassed the Japanese troops.[95] Bose returned to Singapore in August to what remained of the INA and Azad Hind. He wished to stay with his government in Singapore to surrender to the British, reasoning that a trial in India and possible execution would ignite the country, serving the independence movement. He was convinced not to do so by the Azad Hind cabinet.[96] At the time of Japan's surrender in September 1945, Bose left for Dalian near the Soviet border in Japanese-occupied China to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops, and was reported to have died in an air crash near Taiwan.[97][98] The remaining INA troops surrendered under the command of M.Z. Kiani to British-Indian forces at Singapore.[99]
End of the INA
Repatriation to India
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Surrendered_Indian_National_Army_troops_at_Mount_Popa.jpg/250px-Surrendered_Indian_National_Army_troops_at_Mount_Popa.jpg)
Even before the end of the war in South Asia, the INA prisoners who were falling into Allied hands were being evaluated by forwarding intelligence units for potential trials.[100] Almost fifteen hundred had been captured in the battles of Imphal and Kohima and the subsequent withdrawal,[101] while larger numbers surrendered or were captured during the 14th Army's Burma Campaign. A total of 16,000 of the INA's 43,000 recruits were captured, of whom around 11,000 were interrogated by the Combined Services Directorate of Investigation Corps (CSDIC).[102] The number of prisoners necessitated this selective policy which anticipated trials of those with the strongest commitment to Bose's ideologies. Those with lesser commitment or other extenuating circumstances would be dealt with more leniently, with the punishment proportional to their commitment or war crimes.[103] For this purpose, the field intelligence units designated the captured troops as Blacks with the strongest commitment to Azad Hind; Greys with varying commitment but also with enticing circumstances that led them to join the INA; and Whites, those who were pressured into joining the INA under the circumstances but with no commitment to Azad Hind, INA, or Bose.[104]
By July 1945, a large number had been shipped back to India. At the time of the fall of Japan, the remaining captured troops were transported to India via Rangoon. Large numbers of local Malay and Burmese volunteers, including the recruits to the Rani of Jhansi regiment, returned to civilian life and were not identified.[103] Those repatriated passed through transit camps in Chittagong and Calcutta to be held at detention camps all over India including Jhingergacha and Nilganj near Calcutta, Kirkee outside Pune, Attock, Multan and at Bahadurgarh near Delhi. Bahadurgarh also held prisoners of the Free India Legion.[100] By November, around 12,000 INA prisoners were held in these camps; they were released according to the "colours".[100] By December, around 600 Whites were released per week. The process to select those to face trial started.[100]
The British-Indian Army intended to implement appropriate internal disciplinary action against its soldiers who had joined the INA, whilst putting to trial a selected group in order to preserve discipline in the Indian Army and to award punishment for criminal acts where these had occurred.[105] As news of the army spread within India, it began to draw widespread sympathy support and admiration from Indians. Newspaper reports around November 1945 reported executions of INA troops,[106] which worsened the already volatile situation. Increasingly violent confrontations broke out between the police and protesters at the mass rallies being held all over India, culminating in public riotings in support of the INA men.[107][108][109] This public outcry defied traditional communal barriers of the subcontinent, representing a departure from the divisions between Hindus and Muslims seen elsewhere in the independence movement and campaign for Pakistan.[110]
Red Fort trials
Between November 1945 and May 1946, approximately ten courts-martial were held in public at the Red Fort in Delhi. Claude Auchinleck, the Commander-in-Chief of the British-Indian army, hoped that by holding public trials in the Red Fort, public opinion would turn against the INA if the media reported stories of torture and collaborationism, helping him settle a political as well as military question.[111] Those to stand trials were accused variously of murder, torture and "waging war against the King-Emperor". However, the first and most celebrated joint courts-martial – those of Prem Sahgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan – were not the story of torture and murder Auchinleck had hoped to tell the Indian press and people. The accusations against them included the alleged murder of their comrades-in-arms in the INA whilst in Burma. Peter Fay highlights in his book The Forgotten Army that the murders alleged were, in fact, courts-martial of captured deserters the defendants had presided over. If it was accepted that the three were part of a genuine combatant army (as the legal defence team later argued), they had followed due process of written INA law and of the normal process of conduct of war in execution of the sentences.[112] Indians rapidly came to view the soldiers who enlisted as patriots and not enemy-collaborators. Philip Mason, then-Secretary of the War Department, later wrote that "in a matter of weeks ... in a wave of nationalist emotion, the INA were acclaimed heroes who fought for the freedom of India."[113] The three accused were from the three major religions of India: Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism. Indians felt the INA represented a true, secular, national army when judged against the British-Indian Army, where caste and religious differences were preserved amongst ranks.[110][114] The opening of the first trial saw violence and a series of riots in a scale later described as "sensational".[115] The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League both made the release of the INA prisoners an important political issue during the campaign for independence in 1945–1946.[116] Lahore in Diwali 1946 remained dark as the traditional earthen lamps lit on Diwali were not lit by families in support of prisoners.[117] In addition to civilian campaigns of non-cooperation and non-violent protest, protest spread to include mutinies within the British-Indian Army and sympathy within the British-Indian forces. Support for the INA crossed communal barriers to the extent that it was the last major campaign in which the Congress and the Muslim League aligned together; the Congress tricolour and the green flag of the League were flown together at protests.[118]
The Congress quickly came forward to defend soldiers of the INA who were to be court-martialled.[119] The INA Defence Committee was formed by the Indian Congress and included prominent Indian legal figures, among whom were Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Kailashnath Katju and Asaf Ali.[118] The trials covered arguments based on military law, constitutional law, international law, and politics. Mithi Mukherjee call the trials a "key moment in the elaboration of an anticolonial critique of international law in India."[120] Much of the initial defence was based on the argument that they should be treated as prisoners of war as they were not paid mercenaries but bona fide soldiers of a legal government – Bose's Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind.[121] Nehru argued that "however misinformed or otherwise they had been in their notion of patriotic duty towards their country", they recognized the free Indian state as their sovereign and not the British sovereign.[122] Peter Fay points out that at least one INA prisoner – Burhan-ud-Din a brother of the ruler of Chitral – may have deserved to be accused of torture, but his trial had been deferred on administrative grounds.[123] Those charged after the first celebrated courts-martial only faced trial for torture and murder or abetment of murder. Charges of treason were dropped for fear of inflaming public opinion.[124]
In spite of aggressive and widespread opposition to the continuation of the court-martial, it was completed. All three defendants were found guilty in many of the charges and sentenced to deportation for life. The sentence, however, was never carried out. Immense public pressure, demonstrations, and riots forced Claude Auchinleck to release all three defendants. Within three months, 11,000 soldiers of the INA were released after cashiering and forfeiture of pay and allowance.[115][125] On the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten and with the agreement of Jawaharlal Nehru, former soldiers of the INA were not allowed to join the new Indian Armed Forces as a condition for independence.[126]
Some mutinies in the Royal Indian Navy in 1946 are thought to have been caused by the nationalist feelings inspired by the opposition to INA trials.[127] Historians like Sumit Sarkar, Peter Cohen, Fay and others suggest that these events played a crucial role in hastening the end of British rule.[115][128]
Post 1947
Within India, the INA continues to be an emotive and celebrated subject of discussion.[129] It continued to have a stronghold over the public psyche and the sentiments of the armed forces until as late as 1947.[130] It has been suggested that Shah Nawaz Khan was tasked with organising INA troops to train Congress volunteers at Jawaharlal Nehru's request in late 1946 and early 1947. After 1947, several members of the INA who were closely associated with Subhas Bose and with the INA trials were prominent in public life.[19] A number of them held important positions in independent India, serving as ambassadors immediately after independence: Abid Hasan in Egypt and Denmark, A. C. N. Nambiar in the Federal Republic of Germany, Mehboob Hasan in Canada, Cyril John Stracey in the Netherlands, and N. Raghavan in Switzerland.[131] Mohan Singh was elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament. He worked for the recognition of the members of Indian National Army as "freedom fighters" in the cause of the nation's independence in and out of Parliament.[132] Shah Nawaz Khan served as Minister of State for Rail in the first Indian cabinet.[133] Lakshmi Sahgal, Minister for Women's Affairs in the Azad Hind government, was a well known and widely respected public figure in India.[134] In 1971, she joined the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and was later elected the leader of the All India Democratic Women's Association.[135] Joyce Lebra, an American historian, wrote that the rejuvenation of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, then a fledgling Tamil political party in southern India, would not have been possible without participation of INA members.[136]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lakshmi_Sahgal.jpg/200px-Lakshmi_Sahgal.jpg)
Some accounts suggest that the INA veterans were involved in training civilian resistance forces against the Nizam's Razakars prior to the execution of Operation Polo and annexation of Hyderabad.[137] There are also suggestions that some INA veterans led Pakistani irregulars during the First Kashmir war. Mohammed Zaman Kiani served as Pakistan's political agent to Gilgit in the late 1950s.[131][138] Of the very few ex-INA members who joined the Indian Armed Forces after 1947 R. S. Benegal, a member of the Tokyo Boys, joined the Indian Air Force in 1952 and later rose to be an air commodore.[139] Benegal saw action in both 1965 and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, earning a Maha Vir Chakra, India's second-highest award for valour.[140]
Among other prominent members of the INA, Ram Singh Thakur, composer of a number of songs including the INA's regimental march Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja, has been credited by some for the modern tune of the Indian national anthem.[141]
Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Lakshmi Sahgal were later awarded the Indian civilian honours of Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan respectively by the Indian Government in the 1990s.[142][143] Lakshmi Sahgal was nominated for the Indian presidential election by communist parties in 2002. She was the sole opponent of A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, who emerged victorious.[144] Subhas Bose himself was posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna in 1992, but this was later withdrawn over the controversy over the circumstances of his death.[145]
Former INA recruits in diasporic Singapore, however, faced a different situation. In Singapore, Indians – particularly those who were associated with the INA – were treated with disdain as they were "stigmatized as fascists and Japanese collaborators".[146][147] Some within this diaspora later emerged as notable political and social leaders. The consolidation of trade unions in the form of National Union of Plantation Workers was led by ex-INA leaders.[136] In Malaya, notable members of the INA were involved in founding the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) in 1946; John Thivy was the founding president.[148] Janaky Athi Nahappan, second-in-command of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, was also a founding member of the MIC and later became a noted welfare activist and a distinguished senator in the Dewan Negara of the Malaysian Parliament. Rasammah Bhupalan, also of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, later became a well-known welfare-activist and a widely respected champion for women's rights in Malaysia.[149]
Relations
Japanese Army
The INA was known as the puppet army of the Japanese empire.[7][8] In early days, the officers in the INA distrusted the Japanese. Leaders of the first INA sought formal assurances from Japan before committing to war. When these did not arrive, Mohan Singh resigned after ordering his army to disband; he expected to be sentenced to death. After Bose established Azad Hind, he tried to establish his political independence from the regime that supported him. Indeed, he had led protests against the Japanese expansion into China, and supported Chiang Kai-shek during the 1930s. Azad Hind depended on Japan for arms and material but sought to be as financially independent as possible, levying taxes and raising donations from Indians in Southeast Asia".[150] On the Japanese side, members of the high command had been personally impressed by Bose and were willing to grant him some latitude; more importantly, the Japanese were interested in maintaining the support of a man who had been able to mobilise large numbers of Indian expatriates – including, most importantly, 40,000 of the 45,000 Indians captured by the Japanese at Singapore.[151] However, Faye notes that interactions between soldiers in the field was different. Attempts to use Shah Nawaz's troops in road building and as porters angered the troops, forcing Bose to intervene with Mutaguchi. After the withdrawal from Imphal, the relations between both junior non-commissioned officers and between senior officers had deteriorated. INA officers accused the Japanese Army high command of trying to deceive INA troops into fighting for Japan. Conversely, Japanese soldiers often expressed disdain for INA soldiers for having changed their oath of loyalty. This mutual dislike was especially strong after the withdrawal from Imphal began; Japanese soldiers, suspicious that INA defectors had been responsible for their defeat, addressed INA soldiers as "shameless one" instead of "comrade" as previously had been the case.[152] Azad Hind officials in Burma reported difficulties with the Japanese military administration in arranging supply for troops and transport for wounded men as the armies withdrew. Toye notes that local IIL members and Azad Hind Dal (local Azad Hind administrative teams) organised relief supplies from Indians in Burma at this time. As the situation in Burma became hopeless for the Japanese, Bose refused requests to use INA troops against Aung San's Burma National Army, which had turned against Japan and was now allied with Commonwealth forces.[153]
British-Indian Army
The first interaction of the INA with the British-Indian forces was during the months during the First Arakan offensive, between December 1942 and March 1943. The morale of Sepoys during this time was low and knowledge about the INA was minimal. The INA's special services agents led a successful operation during this time in encouraging the Indian troops to defect to the INA. By the end of March 1945, however, the Sepoys in the British-Indian Army were reinvigorated and perceived the men of the INA to be savage turncoats and cowards. Senior British officers in the Indian Army considered them "rabble".[112] Historians Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper mention that sepoys in field units shot captured or wounded INA men, relieving their British officers of the complex task of formulating a formal plan for captured men.[154] After Singapore was retaken, Mountbatten ordered the INA's war memorial to its fallen soldiers to be blown up.[155]
As the story of the INA unfolded in post-war India, the view of Indian soldiers on the INA – and on their own position during the war – also changed.[156] The Raj observed with increasing disquiet and unease the spread of pro-INA sympathies within the troops of the British-Indian forces.[108] In February 1946, while the trials were still going on, a general strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy rapidly deteriorated into a mutiny incorporating ships and shore establishments of the RIN throughout India. The mutineers raised slogans invoking Subhas Bose and the INA, demanding an end to the trials. The mutiny received widespread public support.[157] In some places in the British-Indian Army, non-commissioned Officers started ignoring orders from British superiors. In Madras and Pune British garrisons faced revolts from within the ranks of the British-Indian Army. These were suppressed by force.[157][158] At the conclusion of the first trial, when the sentences of deportation were commuted, Fay records Claude Auchinleck as having sent a "personal and secret" letter to all senior British officers, explaining:[159]
... practically all are sure that any attempt to enforce the sentence would have led to chaos in the country at large, and probably to mutiny and dissension in the Army, culminating in its dissolution.
Influence
World War II
Sidney Bradshaw Fay concludes that the INA was not significant enough to beat the British-Indian Army by military strength. He also writes that the INA was aware of this and formulated its own strategy of avoiding set-piece battles, gathering local and popular support within India and instigating revolt within the British-Indian Army to overthrow the Raj.[14] Moreover, the Forward Bloc underground movement within India had been crushed well before the offensives opened in the Burma–Manipur theatre, depriving the army of any organised internal support.[128] However, despite its small numerical strength and lack of heavy weapons, its special services group played a significant part in halting the First Arakan Offensive while still under Mohan Singh's command.[160] The propaganda threat of the INA and lack of concrete intelligence on the unit early after the fall of Singapore made it a threat to Allied war plans in Southeast Asia, since it threatened to destroy the Sepoys' loyalty to a British-Indian Army that was demoralised from continuing defeats.[161] There were reports of INA operatives successfully infiltrating Commonwealth lines during the Offensive. This caused British intelligence to begin the "Jiffs" propaganda campaign and to create "Josh" groups to improve the morale and preserve the loyalty of the sepoys as consolidation began to prepare for the defence of Manipur.[162][163] These measures included imposing a complete news ban on Bose and the INA that was not lifted until four days after the fall of Rangoon two years later.[164][165]
During the Japanese U-Go offensive towards Manipur in 1944, the INA played a crucial (and successful) role in diversionary attacks in Arakan and in the Manipur Basin itself, where it fought alongside Mutaguchi's 15th Army.[166] INA forces protected the flanks of the assaulting Yamamoto force at a critical time as the latter attempted to take Imphal.[86][167] During the Commonwealth Burma Campaign, the INA troops fought in the battles of Irrawaddy and Meiktilla,[168] supporting the Japanese offensive and tying down Commonwealth troops.[169][170]
Indian independence
The first INA trial, which was held in public, became a rallying point for the independence movement from the autumn of 1945.[18][128][127] The release of INA prisoners and the suspension of the trials came to be the dominant political campaign, superseding the campaign for independence.[171] Christopher Bayly notes that the "INA was to become a much more powerful enemy of the British empire in defeat than it had been during its ill-fated triumphal march on Delhi."[154] The Viceroy's journal describes the autumn and winter of 1945–1946 as "The Edge of a Volcano".[128] The setting of the trial at Red Fort was taken by Indian public as a deliberate taunt by the British Raj over the vanquished INA, recalling the INA's battle cries of unfurling the Indian tricolour over the Red Fort.[112] Many compared the trials to that of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor tried in the same place after the failed 1857 uprising.[172] Support for the INA grew rapidly and their continued detention and news of impending trials was seen an affront to the movement for independence and to Indian identity itself.[173] It was further feared that the Congress would exploit the INA to gain mass support against the Raj and possibly start an armed struggle with weapons smuggled from Burma.[123][174] Nehru was suspected of using INA men to train Congress volunteers.[123] The political effects of the INA trials were enormous and were felt around India as late as 1948, much to the chagrin of the Congress government in independent India,[130][175] which feared that pro-INA sympathies could help alternative sources of power.[176]
Historians such as Sumit Sarkar, Sugata Bose, and Ayesha Jalal conclude that the INA trials and its after-effects brought a decisive shift in British policy towards independence Indian.[171][177] Particularly disturbing was the overt and public support for the INA by the soldiers of the Indian Army and the mutinies.[171][177] The Congress's rhetoric preceding the 1946 elections gave the Raj reasons to fear a revival of the Quit India Movement of 1942.[177] Gandhi noted:[171]
... the whole country has been roused ... even the regular forces have been stirred into a new political consciousness and have begun to think in terms of independence ...
British colonies
After the war ended, the story of the INA and the Indian Legion was seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings across its empire, the British Government forbade the BBC from broadcasting their story.[178] The use of Indian troops for the restoration of Dutch and French rule in Vietnam and Indonesia fed into the already growing resentment within the forces.[179] Indian troops sent to suppress Sukarno's agitations in Indonesia in 1946 rapidly identified with the nationalist sentiments in the previous Dutch colony.[180] The South East Asia Command reported growing sympathy for the INA and dislike of the Dutch.[181] There were similar pro-nationalist sentiments among Indian troops sent to Vietnam, Thailand and Burma. This led to the realisation by 1946 that the British-Indian Army, the bulwark of the policing force in the British colonies, could not be used as an instrument of British power.[182] INA-inspired strikes emerged throughout Britain's colonies in Southeast Asia. In January 1946, protests started at Royal Air Force bases in Karachi and spread rapidly to Singapore. This was followed by a full-scale mutiny by a British Army unit in Singapore. In British Malaya, men of the Parachute Regiment refused to obey orders from their officers.[183] Authors like Nilanjana Sengupta attribute these to a combination of dissatisfaction over pay and work conditions and conflicts of comradeship over the INA trials.[184] Former INA members in Malaya identified closely with the left-wing organisations in opposing British colonial authority. The majority of prominent left-wing union leaders in Malaya after the war were members of the INA. The activities of the trade unions in the newly established Tamil schools were particularly influential, leading to the establishment of an inspector system by the British to supervise the curriculum and teaching in these schools.[136] Joyce Lebra notes that the INA had a particularly strong unifying influence over ethnic Indians residing in Malaya. Lebra concludes that the experience of the INA was useful in challenging British authority in the post-war period in Malaya, and in improving the socio-economic conditions of the Indian community.[136]
Controversies
British and Commonwealth troops viewed the recruits as traitors and Axis collaborators.[88][185][186] Almost 40,000 Indian soldiers in Malaya did not join the army and remained as PoWs. Many were sent to work in the Death Railway, suffered hardships and nearly 11,000 died under Japanese internment.[187] Many of them cited the oath of allegiance they had taken to the King among reasons not to join a Japanese-supported organisation, and regarded the recruits of the INA as traitors for having forsaken their oath. Commanders in the British-Indian Army like Wavell later highlighted the hardships this group of soldiers suffered, contrasting them with the troops of the INA.[187] Many British soldiers held the same opinion.[21] Hugh Toye and Peter Fay point out that the First INA consisted of a mix of recruits joining for various reasons, such as nationalistic leanings, Mohan Singh's appeals, personal ambition or to protect men under their own command from harm.[188] Fay notes some officers like Shah Nawaz Khan were opposed to Mohan Singh's ideas and tried to hinder what they considered a collaborationist organisation.[189] However, both historians note that Indian civilians and former INA soldiers all cite the tremendous influence of Subhas Bose and his appeal to patriotism in rejuvenating the INA. Fay discusses the topic of loyalty of the INA soldiers, and highlights that in Shah Nawaz Khan's trial it was noted that officers of the INA warned their men the possibility of having to fight the Japanese after having fought the British, to prevent Japan exploiting post-war India.[162][190] Carl Vadivella Belle suggested in 2014 that among the local Indians and ex-British-Indian Army volunteers in Malaya, there was a proportion who joined due to the threat of conscription as Japanese labour troops. Recruitment also offered local Indian labourers security from continual semi-starvation of the estates and served as a barrier against Japanese tyranny.[56]
INA troops were alleged to engage in or be complicit in torture of Allied and Indian prisoners of war.[20] Fay in his 1993 history analyses war-time press releases and field counter-intelligence directed at Sepoys. He concludes that the Jiffs campaign promoted the view that INA recruits were weak-willed and traitorous Axis collaborators, motivated by selfish interests of greed and personal gain. He concludes that the allegations of torture were largely products of the Jiffs campaign.[88][191][192] He supports his conclusion by noting that isolated cases of torture had occurred, but allegations of widespread practice of torture were not substantiated in the charges against defendants in the Red Fort trials.[193][194] Published memoirs of several veterans, including that of William Slim, portray the INA troops as incapable fighters and as untrustworthy.[195] Toye noted in 1959 that individual desertions occurred in the withdrawal from Imphal.[196] Fay concluded that stories of INA desertions during the battle and the initial retreat into Burma were largely exaggerated.[197] The majority of desertions occurred much later, according to Fay, around the battles at Irrawaddy and later around Popa. Fay specifically discusses Slim's portrayal of the INA, pointing out what he concludes to be inconsistencies in Slim's accounts.[198] Fay also discusses memoirs of Shah Nawaz, where Khan claims INA troops were never defeated in battle. Fay criticises this too as exaggerated. He concludes the opinions held by Commonwealth war veterans such as Slim were an inaccurate portrayal of the unit, as were those of INA soldiers themselves.[192] Harkirat Singh notes that British officers' personal dislike for Subhas Chandra Bose may have prejudiced their judgement of the INA itself.[123]
Commemorations
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Azad_Hind_stamps_released_by_Indian_National_Army_in_display_at_Netaji_Birth_Place_Museum%2C_Cuttack%2C_Odisha%2C_India.jpg/220px-Azad_Hind_stamps_released_by_Indian_National_Army_in_display_at_Netaji_Birth_Place_Museum%2C_Cuttack%2C_Odisha%2C_India.jpg)
The INA is memorialised in the Swatantrata Sainani Smarak, which is located at the Salimgarh Fort in Delhi, adjacent to the Red Fort.[199][200] Its exhibits include the Indian National Army uniform worn by Colonel Prem Sahgal, riding boots and coat buttons of Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon and photographs of Subhas Chandra Bose. A separate gallery holds material and photographs from excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India inside the fort in 1995. The Indian National Army Memorial at Moirang, Manipur, commemorates the place where the flag of Azad Hind was raised by Col. Shaukat Hayat Malik. Moirang was the first Indian territory captured by the INA.[82][201]
The INA War Memorial at Singapore commemorating the "Unknown Warrior" of the INA was unveiled by Bose in July 1945. Situated at the Esplanade Park, it was destroyed on Mountbatten's orders when Allied troops reoccupied the city. In 1995, the National Heritage Board of Singapore, with financial donations from the Indian community in Singapore, erected the Former Indian National Army Monument at the site where the old memorial stood. The site is now officially one of the historical sites of Singapore.[202]
The INA's battle cry, Jai Hind, was declared the "national greeting" of India by Nehru and remains a popular nationalist greeting.[203] Today it is used by all Indian prime ministers to conclude their Independence Day speeches.[203] The cry became independent India's first commemorative post mark on 15 August 1947.[204] The first postage stamps issued by Independent India are called the Jai Hind series of stamps, showing the Indian flag with the letters Jai Hind in the top right hand corner.[204] These were a part of the series issued on 15 August 1947.[205] Commemorative postage stamps were also issued by the Indian government in 1968 and 1993 respectively to commemorate the 25th and the 50th anniversaries of the establishment of Azad Hind at Singapore.[206] The Department of Posts also includes the six unused Azad Hind stamps in its commemorative book India's Freedom Struggle through India Postage Stamps.[205] The Azad Hind Fauj Marg (Azad Hind Fauj Road) in New Delhi is named after the INA and houses the Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology.[207]
In popular culture
The Indian National Army remains a significant topic of discussion in the popular history of India; it is an emotive topic which has been the subject of numerous works of literature, art, and visual media within India and outside. Some of the earliest works in print media were created at the time of the INA trials. These include works of fiction like Jai Hind: The Diary of a Rebel Daughter of India published in 1945 by Amritlal Seth. The book, a work of fiction narrating the story of a recruit of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, is believed to be loosely based on the story of Lakshmi Sahgal.[208] In later decades works by authors like Amitav Ghosh, such as his book The Glass Palace, have used the backdrop of the Azad Hind and the Japanese occupation of Burma for the narrative of the story.[209] The Day of the Scorpion and The Towers of Silence, the second and third books in Paul Scott's Raj Quartet, mention Jiffs in the political and social context in which the term found use in the Eastern Army during the war. The 1984 British TV series The Jewel in the Crown, based on Scott's quartet, also includes the role of the INA as part of the political backdrop of the story.[210]
In visual media, the INA has been the subject of a number of documentaries. The War of The Springing Tiger made by Granada Television for Channel 4 in 1984 examined the role of the Indian National Army in the Second World War, the motivation of its soldiers and explored its role in the independence movement.[211][212] In 1999 Film India released a documentary, The Forgotten Army. Directed by Kabir Khan and produced by Akhil Bakshi, it followed what was called the Azad Hind Expedition between 1994 and 1995, retracing the route taken by the INA from Singapore to Imphal, before ending at Red Fort. Amongst the members of the expedition team were Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, Lakshmi Sahgal and Captain S.S. Yadava, an INA veteran and once the general secretary of the All India INA Committee. The documentary went on to win the Grand Jury Prize at the Film South Asia festival in 1999.[213] The National Archives of Singapore digitised its available resources in 2007 as Historical Journey of the Indian National Army.[214] In 2004, the Indian Legion in Europe was the subject of a BBC magazine article authored by Mike Thomson, but it did not attempt to distinguish the differences between the Legion and the INA.[178] The Hindustan Times, a large broadsheet in India, dedicates a part of its website to INA resources as Indian National Army in East Asia.[215]
Indian cinema has also seen a number of films in many different Indian languages, where the INA is a significant part of the narrative. These include Pahla Admi by Bimal Roy and Samadhi by Ramesh Saigal, both produced in 1950 based on fictional INA veterans.[216][217] More recently, Indian, a 1996 Tamil film directed by S. Shankar, incorporates a lead character (played by Kamal Hassan) in its story who is a veteran of the INA. Shyam Benegal produced Netaji: The Forgotten Hero in 2004, which traces the last five years of Subhas Chandra Bose. Benegal describes the story of the INA in small details in his film whilst focusing on its leader.[217] The film was also widely noted for A. R. Rahman's music. The INA's marching song, Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja, has since become a famous patriotic song in India. Today it is in use as the regimental quick march of the Indian Parachute regiment.[citation needed] More recently, a 2017 Hindi movie Rangoon, starring Kangna Ranaut, Saif Ali Khan, Shahid Kapoor is based against the backdrop of the INA presence in Rangoon, with the movie centred around the protagonists trying to get across a jewelled sword to the INA. In 2020 Amazon Prime Video released a five-part series called The Forgotten Army - Azaadi Ke Liye! Which tells the story of the INA through the eyes of one of its Captains and the woman he loves. In 2017 only, a show was released namely, Bose: Dead/Alive, it showed Netaji's mysterious disappearance in 1945. In this show too Azad Hind Fauj was shown.
See also
- Battaglione Azad Hindoustan
- Ekla Chalo Re, a poem by Rabindranath Tagore, publicized by Subhas Chandra Bose
- Indian Legion
- Rani of Jhansi Regiment
- Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind
- Burma National Army
- All India Forward Bloc
- Collaboration with Imperial Japan
References
- ^ Henry Heller (2006). The Cold War and the New Imperialism: A Global History, 1945–2005. Monthly Press. p. 87.
By 1943 Bose had organized the 40,000 - strong Indian National Army, a force based in Malaya and commanded by the Japanese
- ^ Fay 1993, p. viii
- ^ Ray, N.R. (1984). Challenge, a Saga of India's Struggle for Freedom. People's Publishing House. p. 586.
- ^ Ghosh, R. (2006). Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and Indian Freedom Struggle (Set in 2 Vols.). Deep & Deep Publications. p. 32. ISBN 978-81-7629-842-1.
- ^ Lebra 2008, Foreword, pp. viii–x
- ^ a b Lebra 2008, p. 99
- ^ a b Seaman, Harry (1989). The Battle At Sangshak: Prelude to Kohima. L. Cooper. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-85052-720-9.
puppet army composed of Indian prisoners of war
- ^ a b Yuki Tanaka (2017). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II. Asian Voices. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 215. ISBN 978-1-5381-0270-1.
a puppet army under Japanese control
- ^ "Subhas Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru: Admirers or adversaries? A myth buster".
- ^ a b Lebra 2008, p. xv
- ^ a b Fay 1993, pp. 283–284
- ^ a b Fay 1993, p. 330
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 423
- ^ a b Fay 1993, p. 138
- ^ Moreman, Tim (2013). The Jungle, Japanese and the British Commonwealth Armies at War, 1941–45: Fighting Methods, Doctrine and Training for Jungle Warfare. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-76456-2.
- ^ Marston2014, pp. 130–132: "Many Indian Army POWs were perplexed by Congress's sudden support for the INA"
- ^ Singh 2003, p. 98.
- ^ a b Sarkar 1983, p. 420
- ^ a b c Lebra 2008, p. 107
- ^ a b Fay 1993, pp. 423–424, 453
- ^ a b c d Toye 1959, Mason, in Foreword, p. xiv
- ^ Cohen 1971, p. 132
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 228
- ^ Lebra 1977, p. 23
- ^ a b c Lebra 1977, p. 24
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 75
- ^ a b Toye 2007, p. 4
- ^ Fay 1993, pp. 56, 224, 226
- ^ Toye 1959, p. 30
- ^ Toye 1959, p. 7,8
- ^ Fay 1993, pp. 91, 108
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 108
- ^ Lebra 2008, p. 77
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 94
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 111
- ^ Lebra 2008, p. 49
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 150
- ^ a b Toye 1959, p. 45
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 149
- ^ a b Fay 1993, p. 151
- ^ "MZ Kiani". World News. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
- ^ Lebra 2008, p. 98
- ^ a b Toye 2007, p. 2
- ^ Lebra 1977, p. 27
- ^ Toye 1959, p. 80
- ^ a b c d Toye 2007, The Rebel President
- ^ Sengupta 2012, pp. 23–24
- ^ a b Toye 1959, p. 88
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 197
- ^ "Subhas Chandra Bose in Nazi Germany". Sisir K. Majumdar. South Asia Forum Quarterly. 1997. pp. 10–14. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
- ^ Tojo 1943
- ^ Toye 1959, pp. 117–119
- ^ Lebra 2008, p. 231
- ^ "Total Mobilisation". National Archives of Singapore. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
- ^ Fay 1993, p. 223
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Further reading
- The Springing Tiger: A Study of a Revolutionary by Hugh Toye (1959).
- History of the Indian National Army by Kalyan Kumar Ghosh (1966).
- Jungle Alliance, Japan and the Indian National Army by Joyce C. Lebra (1971).
- Brothers Against the Raj — A Biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas Chandra Bose by Leonard A. Gordon (1990), Princeton University Press, 1990.
- The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945 by Peter Fay (1995).
- Women Against the Raj: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment by Joyce C Lebra (2008).