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==History==
===Weidenreich-Coon===
The multiregional hypothesis has its origin in the work of [[Franz Weidenreich]] in the 1930s, based on his examination of [[Peking Man]]. Weidenreich was an [[anatomist]] and observed numerous anatomical characteristics that he thought Peking Man had in common with modern [[Asian people|Asians]]. The Weidenreich Theory stated that human races have evolved independently in the [[Old World]] from ''[[Homo erectus]]'' to ''[[Homo sapiens|Homo sapiens sapiens]]'', while at the same time there was gene flow between the various populations.
===Regional continuity===
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===Neanderthals===
Multiregionalists claimed that the discovery of a possible hybrid ''Homo sapiens X neanderthalensis'' fossil child at the [[Abrigo do Lagar Velho]] rock-shelter site in Portugal in 1999 further supports the multiregional hypothesis, by reflecting the admixture of diverse human populations<ref>''The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia'' ;Duarte C, 2. Maurício J, Pettitt P, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhão J (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604–7609,[http://www.pnas.org/content/96/13/7604.abstract?ijkey=9335ab52731624a02b5f7f426c4a8c2147934993&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]</ref>. Two other archaeologists dispute this: "the analysis by Duarte ''et al.'' of the Lagar Velho child's skeleton is a brave and imaginative interpretation, of which it is unlikely that a majority of paleoanthropologists will consider proven."<ref>''Chunky Gravettian child''; Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz .[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/13/7117]</ref> But the Duarte ''et al.'' discovery was already cited in more than 130 scholarly publication<ref>citation [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&cites=204899079675438363]</ref>
In an article appearing in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]<ref>http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/18/7367 European early modern humans and the fate of the Neandertals</ref> in 2007, Erik Trinkaus has brought together the available data, which shows that early modern humans did exhibit evidence of Neandertal traits.
"When you look at all of the well dated and diagnostic early modern European fossils, there is a persistent presence of anatomical features that were present among the Neandertals but absent from the earlier African modern humans," Trinkaus said. "Early modern Europeans reflect both their predominant African early modern human ancestry and a substantial degree of admixture between those early modern humans and the indigenous Neandertals."<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070423185434.htm The Emerging Fate Of The Neandertals</ref>
===Peking man===
Shang et al see continuity in skeletal remains of [[Peking Man|archaic people from east Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0702169104 | title = An early modern human from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China | author = Shang et al. | volume = 104 | issue = 16 | pages = 6573 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | year = 1999 | pmid = 17416672}}</ref>
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*[[ASAH1]] two lineages <ref>[[ASAH1]] SL and ML region SNP DNA seguences [[http://www.genetics.org/content/vol178/issue3/images/large/1505fig3.jpeg jpeg]</ref> V adn M have [[Time to Most Recent Common Ancestor|TMRCA]] 2-2.8 My <ref>http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content-nw/full/178/3/1505/FIG4</ref>. [[Most recent common ancestor|TMRCA]] of the V lineage is estimated as 200 ± 50-340 ± 80 KY and M 320 ± 70 KY from the Genetree analysis and 680 ± 180 KY from the nucleotide diversity. The hgher V frequency is explained by positive Darwinian selection operating on V lineage. ASHA1 is higly related to neutronal control, growth rates and differentiation. Deficiency is responsible for [[Farber disease|Farber lipogranulomatosis]].<ref>Population Genetic Analysis of the N-Acylsphingosine Amidohydrolase Gene Associated With Mental Activity in Humans
Hie Lim Kim and Yoko Satta; doi:10.1534/genetics.107.083691 ; url: [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/178/3/1505]</ref>
*[[MAPT]] ([[Microtubule-associated protein|microtubule]] associated [[Tau protein|protein tau]]) H2 clade in European population inherited from Neanderthals <ref>Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens;
J. Hardy, A. Pittman, A. Myers, K. Gwinn-Hardy, H.C. Fung, R. de Silva, M. Hutton and J. Duckworth; Biochemical Society Transactions (2005) Volume 33, part 4; qoute: ''We suggest that the H2 haplotype is derived from Homo neanderthalensis and entered H. sapiens populations during the coexistence of these species in Europe from approx. 45 000 to 18 000 years ago and that the H2 haplotype has been under selection pressure since that time, possibly because of the role of this H1 haplotype in neurodegenerative disease.| The tau (MAPT ) locus is very unusual. Over a region of approx. 1.8 Mb, there are two haplotype clades in European populations, H1 and H2 [6,7]. In other populations, only the H1 occurs and shows a normal pattern of recombination</ref>chromosome locus 17q21.3.<ref>Microdeletion encompassing MAPT at chromosome 17q21.3 is associated with developmental delay and learning disability</ref>. Zody &al ''analysis favors the H2 configuration and sequence haplotype as the likely great ape and human ancestral state''. The H2/H1 lineage split may be older than 7My because ''[[Pan troglodytes]]'' carry H1 like inversion while ''[[Pan paniscus]]'' H2.<ref>Evolutionary toggling of the MAPT 17q21.31 inversion region; Michael C Zody, Zhaoshi Jiang, Hon-Chung Fung, Francesca Antonacci, LaDeana W Hillier, Maria Francesca Cardone, Tina A Graves, Jeffrey M Kidd, Ze Cheng, Amr Abouelleil, Lin Chen, John Wallis, Jarret Glasscock, Richard K Wilson, Amy Denise Reily, Jaime Duckworth, Mario Ventura, John Hardy, Wesley C Warren & Evan E Eichler; Nature Genetics 40, 1076 - 1083 (2008); doi:10.1038/ng.193 </ref><ref>Introgression and microcephalin FAQ [http://johnhawks.net/weblog/reviews/neandertals/neandertal_dna/introgression_faq_2006.html John Hawks] </ref><ref>http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v40/n9/extref/ng.193-S1.pdf</ref> There are conntradictory reports which one clade H1 or H2 is [[risk factor]]. In Italy country with roman era high influx of egzoeuropean population haplotype H2 is considered risk factor <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16410051]. qoute: Our results support idea that the MAPT H2 haplotype is a risk factor</ref> In England othervise ''The MAPT H1c haplotype is a risk factor for the [[Progressive supranuclear palsy|PSP]] and [[Alzheimer's disease|AD]]'' <ref>doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.12.017</ref>We did not observe an association of frontotemporal dementia and H2 MAPT haplotype. <ref>Genetics in Medicine. 9(1):9-13, January 2007.[http://www.geneticsinmedicine.org/pt/re/gim/abstract.00125817-200701000-00003.htm;jsessionid=KxWBbYhFJ2H5cHnb23mWMnynVGRTqRt0Dg82JvG3RWnlQqH8X9v9!-514211921!181195628!8091!-1]</ref> Our data provide strong evidence that the H1 clade, which contains MAPT and several other genes, is a risk factor for [[Parkinson's disease|PD]]. <ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17514749 We genotyped 1,762 PD patients and 2,010 control subjects for a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that differentiates the H1 and H2 clades.</ref>Mixing H2 into deep genetic lineage H1 is not healthy. In Guam after WW2 'Parkinson’s dementia complex of Guam'<ref>TAU as a Susceptibility Gene for Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis–Parkinsonism Dementia Complex of Guam; Arch Neurol. 2001;58:1871-1878.[http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/157/2/149]</ref><ref>http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/157/2/149</ref> reached epidemic proportions and was a major genetic cause of death on the island for postwar generation.<ref>[http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=7&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biochemsoctrans.org%2Fbst%2F033%2F0582%2F0330582.pdf&ei=jfMxSrDdEJXcMN7OuYIK&rct=j&q=guam+MAPT&usg=AFQjCNFvcjikMrJcuAZsfxmKc_bZ6f0vMA]</ref>The H2 clade is predominant in ancestral ''[[Old European culture|Old Europe]]'' population ''exclusively of Caucasian origin''. For Asian origin Hungarian Gyspy sample'' H1 haplotype was significantly more frequent''<ref>H1 tau haplotype-related genomic variation at 17q21.3 as an Asian heritage of the European Gypsy population; Heredity (2008) 101, 416–419; doi:10.1038/hdy.2008.70; published online 23 July 2008; qoute:''In this study, we examine the frequency of a 900 kb inversion at 17q21.3 in the Gypsy and Caucasian populations of Hungary, which may reflect the Asian origin of Gypsy populations. Of the two haplotypes (H1 and H2), H2 is thought to be exclusively of Caucasian origin, and its occurrence in other racial groups is likely to reflect admixture. In our sample, the H1 haplotype was significantly more frequent in the Gypsy population (89.8 vs 75.5%, P<0.001) and was in Hardy–Weinberg disequilibrium (P=0.017). The 17q21.3 region includes the gene of microtubule-associated protein tau, and this result might imply higher sensitivity to H1 haplotype-related multifactorial tauopathies among Gypsies.''</ref>.
Proponents of the multiregional hypothesis show [[DNA sequencing|genetic sequences]] of several [[locus|loci]] in the [[human genome]] with million year old genealogy<ref>Evidence for Archaic Asian Ancestry on the Human X Chromosome; Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Tesa Severson, Jason A. Wilder and Michael F. Hammer; Molecular Biology and Evolution 2005 22(2):189-192; doi:10.1093/molbev/msi013 [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/22/2/189?ijkey=239b0ce6c04434150a9be27400d3278dc06240ab&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]</ref><ref>Deep Haplotype Divergence and Long-Range Linkage Disequilibrium at Xp21.1 Provide Evidence That Humans Descend From a Structured Ancestral Population; Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Sarah B. Kingan, Jason A. Wilder and Michael F. Hammer; Genetics, Vol. 170, 1849-1856, August 2005, Copyright © 2005
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Daniel Garrigan and Michael F. Hammer; doi:10.1534/genetics.105.041095 [http://www.pnas.org/content/105/2/E3.full]</ref><ref>Reply to Garrigan and Hammer: Ancient lineages and assimilation;
Nelson J. R. Fagundes, Nicolas Ray, Mark Beaumont, Samuel Neuenschwande, Francisco M. Salzano†, Sandro L. Bonatto and Laurent Excoffier ;10.1073/pnas.0711261105 [http://www.pnas.org/content/105/2/E4.full] qoute:''We must repeat that our results do not exclude the occurrence of some admixture events between modern and archaic humans,''</ref>
Some genetic lineages has potential to bring genetic evidence to multiregional evolution but the complexity of problem need more research.
*[[Human leukocyte antigen|HLA]] polymorphism has possible genealogy from 0.5 to 10 My and may reflect gene history before ''Homo'' lineage diverged from ''Pan''<ref>Genes, fossils, and behaviour; Robert Foley, North Atlantic Treaty Organization [http://books.google.com/books?id=-wJxcwWQNGoC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=HLA+polymorphisms+evolution&source=bl&ots=O4n1saqjfz&sig=595zKxgjnct8tJwHXWRjUjhxLnY&hl=en&ei=JSsySpeRHIG0NLT05ZAK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6#PPA102,M1 google books preview page 101]</ref>. Many [[Major_histocompatibility_complex#MHC_evolution_and_allelic_diversity|MHC]] HLA alleles are quite ancient: often an allele from a particular human HLA gene is more closely related to an allele found in chimpanzees than it is to another human allele from the same gene. The complexity is at least [[cube|cubical]] as anthropogensis may be traced to multiple [[pathogenesis]] and again to genetic history of multiple [[Host (biology)|host]]s.<ref>Infectious Disease and Host-Pathogen Evolution; Edited by Krishna R. Dronamraju ; ISBN-13: 9780521820660 | ISBN-10: 0521820669</ref>
==Researchers==
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Multiregional evolution contrasts with the "[[Recent African Origin]]" (RAO) theory. According to the latter theory, human evolution was a consequence of many cases of species replacement, as newer species replaced older ones across the human range{{Fact|really multiple Homo species replaced each others?|date=June 2009}}. Modern [[human origins]], according to the RAO, is the most recent example of species replacement.
In 1997, testing performed on mitochondrial DNA extracted from a Neanderthal skeleton showed modern humans and Neanderthals last shared a common ancestor between 500,000 and 800,000 years ago, and furthermore that all modern humans mtDNA, from the
==Political implications==
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== See also ==
* [[Recent single-origin hypothesis]]
* [[Punctuated equilibrium]]
|
Revision as of 13:51, 12 June 2009
The multiregional hypothesis is a theory of the anthropogenesis to anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens. The multiregional hypothesis holds that the evolution of humanity from the beginning of the Pleistocene 1.8 million years BP to the present day has been within a single, continuous human species, evolving worldwide from Homo erectus to modern Homo sapiens.[1]
A competing theory of the recent African origin of modern humans (also known as "Out of Africa") has emerged as the near consensus view since the 1990s,[2][3] proposing that modern humans arose in Africa around 100-200,000 years ago, moving out of Africa around 50-60,000 years ago to replace existing human species such as Homo erectus and the Neanderthals.[4]
Proponents of the multiregional hypothesis point to fossil and genomic data^[5] as support for their hypothesis. The gene flow, interbreeding or "admixture" between modern and ancestral human population has not been ruled out,[6][7] although Hodgson and Disotell in 2008 did not find genetic evidence from NGP for a contribution from Neanderthals to modern Europeans.[8] To differentiate the current theory from earlier hypothesis some researchers prefer the term multiregional evolution.
History
Weidenreich-Coon
The multiregional hypothesis has its origin in the work of Franz Weidenreich in the 1930s, based on his examination of Peking Man. Weidenreich was an anatomist and observed numerous anatomical characteristics that he thought Peking Man had in common with modern Asians. The Weidenreich Theory stated that human races have evolved independently in the Old World from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens sapiens, while at the same time there was gene flow between the various populations. According to the Weidenreich Theory, genes that were generally adaptive (such as those for intelligence and communication) would flow relatively rapidly from one part of the world to the other, while those that were locally adaptive, would not. By gene flow wont be possible that one superior race displaced other races. A vocal proponent of the Weidenreich theory was Carleton Coon developing warlike replacement theories[9].
Regional continuity
The term "multiregional hypothesis" was first coined in the early 1980s by Milford H. Wolpoff and colleagues as an explanation for the apparent similarities seen in Homo erectus and Homo sapiens fossils from the same region, what they called regional continuity.[10]
Wolpoff rejected the earlier proposal by Coon of parallel evolution,[10] and proposed a theory based on clinal variation that would allow for the necessary balance between local selection and a global species. He proposed that Homo erectus, Neanderthals, Homo sapiens and other humans were a single species. This species arose in Africa two million years ago as H. erectus and then spread out over the world, developing adaptations to regional conditions. It was proposed that for periods of time some populations became isolated, developing in a different direction, but through continuous interbreeding, replacement, genetic drift and selection, adaptations that were an advantage anywhere on earth would spread, keeping the development of the species in the same overall direction, while maintaining adaptations to regional factors. Eventually, the more unusual local varieties of the species would have disappeared in favor of modern humans, retaining some regional adaptations, but with many common features.[1]
Fossil evidence
Some supporters of the multiregional hypothesis, including Wolpoff, argue that fossil evidence is more reliable than estimates based on genetic evidence and molecular clocks, which they contend are subject to genetic drift, bottlenecks and other complicating factors.
Neanderthals
Multiregionalists claimed that the discovery of a possible hybrid Homo sapiens X neanderthalensis fossil child at the Abrigo do Lagar Velho rock-shelter site in Portugal in 1999 further supports the multiregional hypothesis, by reflecting the admixture of diverse human populations[11]. Two other archaeologists dispute this: "the analysis by Duarte et al. of the Lagar Velho child's skeleton is a brave and imaginative interpretation, of which it is unlikely that a majority of paleoanthropologists will consider proven."[12] But the Duarte et al. discovery was already cited in more than 130 scholarly publication[13]
In an article appearing in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences[14] in 2007, Erik Trinkaus has brought together the available data, which shows that early modern humans did exhibit evidence of Neandertal traits. "When you look at all of the well dated and diagnostic early modern European fossils, there is a persistent presence of anatomical features that were present among the Neandertals but absent from the earlier African modern humans," Trinkaus said. "Early modern Europeans reflect both their predominant African early modern human ancestry and a substantial degree of admixture between those early modern humans and the indigenous Neandertals."[15]
Peking man
Shang et al see continuity in skeletal remains of archaic people from east Asia.[16]
Early modern humans
Wolpoff and colleagues published an analysis in 2001 of character traits of the skulls of early modern human fossils, which failed to reject a theory of dual ancestry from Javan Homo erectus for Australian early modern humans and Neanderthals for Central European modern humans, and which they said ruled out a replacement model.[17] A subsequent analysis comparing differences of Neanderthal skulls to those of modern humans using 3D morphometric techniques showed a large difference between the two populations, such that Harvatti & al concluded that "we interpret the evidence presented here as supporting the view that Neanderthals represent an extinct human species and therefore refute the regional continuity model for Europe."[18] But such differences, they are fully consistent with an evolving lineage: ancestors are never identical to their descendants.[19]
Genetic evidence
By analysing haplotype data, Alan Templeton found support for three waves of human migration out of Africa, the first 1.9 million years ago, and concluded that it was impossible that existing Eurasian populations had not interbred with African migrants.[20]
Studies on past population bottlenecks that can be inferred from molecular data have led multiregionalists to conclude that the recent single-origin hypothesis is untenable because there are no population size bottlenecks affecting all genes that are more recent than 2 million years ago.
- Microcephalin.[21][22][23]
- RRM2P4 (ribonucleotide reductase M2 subunit pseudogene 4)[24] region on X chromosome.[25]
- PDHA1 (pyruvate dehydrogenase) locus on X chromosome.[26]
- DMD44
- APXL, AMELX, TNFSF5 [27]
- ASAH1 two lineages [28] V adn M have TMRCA 2-2.8 My [29]. TMRCA of the V lineage is estimated as 200 ± 50-340 ± 80 KY and M 320 ± 70 KY from the Genetree analysis and 680 ± 180 KY from the nucleotide diversity. The hgher V frequency is explained by positive Darwinian selection operating on V lineage. ASHA1 is higly related to neutronal control, growth rates and differentiation. Deficiency is responsible for Farber lipogranulomatosis.[30]
- MAPT (microtubule associated protein tau) H2 clade in European population inherited from Neanderthals [31]chromosome locus 17q21.3.[32]. Zody &al analysis favors the H2 configuration and sequence haplotype as the likely great ape and human ancestral state. The H2/H1 lineage split may be older than 7My because Pan troglodytes carry H1 like inversion while Pan paniscus H2.[33][34][35] There are conntradictory reports which one clade H1 or H2 is risk factor. In Italy country with roman era high influx of egzoeuropean population haplotype H2 is considered risk factor [36] In England othervise The MAPT H1c haplotype is a risk factor for the PSP and AD [37]We did not observe an association of frontotemporal dementia and H2 MAPT haplotype. [38] Our data provide strong evidence that the H1 clade, which contains MAPT and several other genes, is a risk factor for PD. [39]Mixing H2 into deep genetic lineage H1 is not healthy. In Guam after WW2 'Parkinson’s dementia complex of Guam'[40][41] reached epidemic proportions and was a major genetic cause of death on the island for postwar generation.[42]The H2 clade is predominant in ancestral Old Europe population exclusively of Caucasian origin. For Asian origin Hungarian Gyspy sample H1 haplotype was significantly more frequent[43].
Proponents of the multiregional hypothesis show genetic sequences of several loci in the human genome with million year old genealogy[44][45][46][47][48][49]. Those data of deep genetic lineages are explained in the multiregional theory framework as a result of heredity from structured ancestral population[50]. The data are not interpreted in light of the RAO hypothesis postulating recent replacement where separated million years ago genetic lineages are at best unpredicted. [51][52]
Some genetic lineages has potential to bring genetic evidence to multiregional evolution but the complexity of problem need more research.
- HLA polymorphism has possible genealogy from 0.5 to 10 My and may reflect gene history before Homo lineage diverged from Pan[53]. Many MHC HLA alleles are quite ancient: often an allele from a particular human HLA gene is more closely related to an allele found in chimpanzees than it is to another human allele from the same gene. The complexity is at least cubical as anthropogensis may be traced to multiple pathogenesis and again to genetic history of multiple hosts.[54]
Researchers
The most prominent current proponents of the multiregional hypothesis are Milford H. Wolpoff, Wu Xinzhi, Alan G. Thorne, James Calcagno[55], John Hawks[56], Alan Templeton, and Erik Trinkaus.
Criticism of the multiregional hypothesis
Multiregional evolution contrasts with the "Recent African Origin" (RAO) theory. According to the latter theory, human evolution was a consequence of many cases of species replacement, as newer species replaced older ones across the human range[citation needed]. Modern human origins, according to the RAO, is the most recent example of species replacement.
In 1997, testing performed on mitochondrial DNA extracted from a Neanderthal skeleton showed modern humans and Neanderthals last shared a common ancestor between 500,000 and 800,000 years ago, and furthermore that all modern humans mtDNA, from the Irish to the !Kung people of Africa, are more closely related to each other than to the Neanderthals mtaDNA—further evidence supporting the Out-of-Africa theory[citation needed]. But mitochondrial DNA has only 0.0005% of genome DNA and the mtDNA come from captured bacteria[57][58].
Political implications
Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Jackson have suggested that any new support for a biological concept of race will likely come from another source, namely, the study of human evolution. They therefore ask what, if any, implications current models of human evolution may have for any biological conception of race.[59]
The major implication for race in the multiregional evolution continuity model involves the time depth of a million or more years in which race differentiation might evolve in diverse ecological regions [...]. This must be balanced against the degree of gene flow and the transregional operation of natural selection on encephalization due to development of tools and, more broadly, culture.[60]
See also
- Recent single-origin hypothesis
- Punctuated equilibrium
- Interbreeding of Cro-Magnon and Neanderthals
- Mitochondrial Eve
- Y-chromosomal Adam
References
- ^ a b Wolpoff, MH (2000). "Multiregional, not multiple origins". Am J Phys Anthropol. 112 (1): 129–36.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Hua Liu, et al. A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History. American Journal of Human Genetics, volume 79 (2006), pages 230–237, quote: Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where the near consensus on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history.
- ^ Weaver, Timothy D (2008). "New developments in the genetic evidence for modern human origins". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 17 (1). Wiley-Liss: 69–80.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Fagundes, NJ (2007). "Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104 (45): 17614–9.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Cox, MP (2008). "Testing for archaic hominin admixture on the X chromosome: model likelihoods for the modern human RRM2P4 region from summaries of genealogical topology under the structured coalescent". Genetics. 178 (1): 427–37.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Relethford, JH (2008). "Genetic evidence and the modern human origins debate". Heredity. 100 (6). Macmillan: 555–63.
- ^ Wall, JD (2006). "Archaic admixture in the human genome". Curr Opin Genet Dev. 16 (6): 606–10.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Hodgson, JA (2008). "No evidence of a Neanderthal contribution to modern human diversity". Genome Biology. 9 (2). BioMed Central: 206.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ The Races of Europe by Carleton Coon 1939 (Hosted by the Society for Nordish Physical Anthropology)
- ^ a b Wolpoff, MH (1988). "Modern Human Origins". Science. 241 (4867): 772–4.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia ;Duarte C, 2. Maurício J, Pettitt P, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhão J (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604–7609,[1]
- ^ Chunky Gravettian child; Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz .[2]
- ^ citation [3]
- ^ http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/18/7367 European early modern humans and the fate of the Neandertals
- ^ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070423185434.htm The Emerging Fate Of The Neandertals
- ^ Shang; et al. (1999). "An early modern human from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (16): 6573. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702169104. PMID 17416672.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help) - ^ Wolpoff, Milford H (2001). "Modern Human Ancestry at the Peripheries: A Test of the Replacement Theory". Science. 291. AAAS: 293–297.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Harvati, Katerina (2004). "Neanderthal taxonomy reconsidered: Implications of 3D primate models of intra- and interspecific differences". PNAS. 101 (5): 1147–1152.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Why not the Neandertals? Milford H. Wolpoff, Bruce Mannheim, Alan Mann, John Hawks, Rachel Caspari, Karen R. Rosenberg, David W. Frayer, George W. Gill and Geoffrey Clark; DOI: 10.1080/0043824042000303700; url: pdf
- ^ Williams, Robyn (2004). "Are We Neanderthals?". The Science Show. ABC Radio. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
- ^ Evidence that the adaptive allele of the brain size gene microcephalin introgressed into Homo sapiens from an archaic Homo lineage; PNAS | November 28, 2006 | vol. 103 | no. 48 | 18178-18183 ; quote: "... As such, microcephalin shows by far the most compelling evidence of admixture among the human loci examined thus far. Speculation about the identity of the archaic Homo population from which the microcephalin D allele introgressed into the modern human gene pool points to the Neanderthal lineage as a potential (although by no means only) candidate. Anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals shared a long period of coexistence, from as early as 130,000 years ago in the Middle East (39) to as late as 35,000 years ago in Europe (40), consistent with the estimated introgression time of the microcephalin D allele at or sometime before {approx}37,000 years ago. Furthermore, the worldwide frequency distribution of the D allele, exceptionally high outside of Africa but low in sub-Saharan Africa (29), suggests, but does not necessitate, admixture with an archaic Eurasian population. Finally, our estimate of the separation time between D and non-D alleles (i.e., {approx}1,100,000 years with a lower-bound confidence interval of {approx}530,000 years) is largely consistent with the divergence time between modern humans and Neanderthals based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence difference (320,000–740,000 years; refs. 41 and 42) and with the earliest appearance of Neanderthals in the fossil record {approx}500,000 years ago (43). It would be of great interest to sequence the microcephalin locus in Neanderthals or other archaic Homo lineages, should it become technically feasible to retrieve and analyze nuclear DNA from ancient hominid remains. Our results not only provide genetic evidence in support of the possibility of admixture between modern humans and an archaic Homo lineage but also support the notion that the biological evolution of modern humans might have benefited from the contribution of adaptive alleles from our archaic relatives. In the case of microcephalin, it is all the more intriguing given the fact that the adaptive allele is associated with an important brain development gene. ..." URL:http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/48/18178
- ^ http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/104/18/7367
- ^ Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size, Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans; Science 9 September 2005: Vol. 309. no. 5741, pp. 1717 - 1720 DOI: 10.1126/science.1113722; Patrick D. Evans & all; URL:http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/309/5741/1717
- ^ [4]
- ^ Testing for Archaic Hominin Admixture on the X Chromosome: Model Likelihoods for the Modern Human RRM2P4 Region From Summaries of Genealogical Topology Under the Structured Coalescent. Murray P. Cox Genetics, Vol. 178, 427-437, January 2008, doi:10.1534/genetics.107.080432 URL: http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/178/1/427
- ^ More on the X files. Rosalind M. Harding. PNAS Vol. 96, Issue 6, 2582-2584, March 16, 1999 http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/6/2582; quote:the pattern of diversity at the PDHA1 locus unexpected is that this extreme structure is observed in a polymorphism with an estimated total coalescent-time depth of 1.86 million years
- ^ Hammer, M. F., D. Garrigan, E. Wood, J. A. Wilder, Z. Mobasher, A. Bigham, J. G. Krenz, and M. W. Nachman. 2004. Heterogeneous patterns of variation among multiple human X-linked loci: the possible role of diversity-reducing selection in non-Africans. Genetics 167:1841–1853. doi:10.1534/genetics.103.025361 [5]; qoute:results indicate that a simple out-of-Africa bottleneck model is not sufficient to explain the observed patterns of sequence variation and that diversity-reducing selection acting at a subset of loci and/or a more complex neutral model must be invoked.
- ^ ASAH1 SL and ML region SNP DNA seguences [jpeg
- ^ http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content-nw/full/178/3/1505/FIG4
- ^ Population Genetic Analysis of the N-Acylsphingosine Amidohydrolase Gene Associated With Mental Activity in Humans Hie Lim Kim and Yoko Satta; doi:10.1534/genetics.107.083691 ; url: [6]
- ^ Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens; J. Hardy, A. Pittman, A. Myers, K. Gwinn-Hardy, H.C. Fung, R. de Silva, M. Hutton and J. Duckworth; Biochemical Society Transactions (2005) Volume 33, part 4; qoute: We suggest that the H2 haplotype is derived from Homo neanderthalensis and entered H. sapiens populations during the coexistence of these species in Europe from approx. 45 000 to 18 000 years ago and that the H2 haplotype has been under selection pressure since that time, possibly because of the role of this H1 haplotype in neurodegenerative disease.| The tau (MAPT ) locus is very unusual. Over a region of approx. 1.8 Mb, there are two haplotype clades in European populations, H1 and H2 [6,7]. In other populations, only the H1 occurs and shows a normal pattern of recombination
- ^ Microdeletion encompassing MAPT at chromosome 17q21.3 is associated with developmental delay and learning disability
- ^ Evolutionary toggling of the MAPT 17q21.31 inversion region; Michael C Zody, Zhaoshi Jiang, Hon-Chung Fung, Francesca Antonacci, LaDeana W Hillier, Maria Francesca Cardone, Tina A Graves, Jeffrey M Kidd, Ze Cheng, Amr Abouelleil, Lin Chen, John Wallis, Jarret Glasscock, Richard K Wilson, Amy Denise Reily, Jaime Duckworth, Mario Ventura, John Hardy, Wesley C Warren & Evan E Eichler; Nature Genetics 40, 1076 - 1083 (2008); doi:10.1038/ng.193
- ^ Introgression and microcephalin FAQ John Hawks
- ^ http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v40/n9/extref/ng.193-S1.pdf
- ^ [7]. qoute: Our results support idea that the MAPT H2 haplotype is a risk factor
- ^ doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.12.017
- ^ Genetics in Medicine. 9(1):9-13, January 2007.[8]
- ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17514749 We genotyped 1,762 PD patients and 2,010 control subjects for a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that differentiates the H1 and H2 clades.
- ^ TAU as a Susceptibility Gene for Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis–Parkinsonism Dementia Complex of Guam; Arch Neurol. 2001;58:1871-1878.[9]
- ^ http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/157/2/149
- ^ [10]
- ^ H1 tau haplotype-related genomic variation at 17q21.3 as an Asian heritage of the European Gypsy population; Heredity (2008) 101, 416–419; doi:10.1038/hdy.2008.70; published online 23 July 2008; qoute:In this study, we examine the frequency of a 900 kb inversion at 17q21.3 in the Gypsy and Caucasian populations of Hungary, which may reflect the Asian origin of Gypsy populations. Of the two haplotypes (H1 and H2), H2 is thought to be exclusively of Caucasian origin, and its occurrence in other racial groups is likely to reflect admixture. In our sample, the H1 haplotype was significantly more frequent in the Gypsy population (89.8 vs 75.5%, P<0.001) and was in Hardy–Weinberg disequilibrium (P=0.017). The 17q21.3 region includes the gene of microtubule-associated protein tau, and this result might imply higher sensitivity to H1 haplotype-related multifactorial tauopathies among Gypsies.
- ^ Evidence for Archaic Asian Ancestry on the Human X Chromosome; Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Tesa Severson, Jason A. Wilder and Michael F. Hammer; Molecular Biology and Evolution 2005 22(2):189-192; doi:10.1093/molbev/msi013 [11]
- ^ Deep Haplotype Divergence and Long-Range Linkage Disequilibrium at Xp21.1 Provide Evidence That Humans Descend From a Structured Ancestral Population; Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Sarah B. Kingan, Jason A. Wilder and Michael F. Hammer; Genetics, Vol. 170, 1849-1856, August 2005, Copyright © 2005 doi:10.1534/genetics.105.041095 [12]
- ^ X chromosome evidence for ancient human histories; Eugene E. Harris and Jody Hey; PNAS March 16, 1999 vol. 96 no. 6 3320-3324 [13]
- ^ A common inversion under selection in Europeans; Stefansson H, Helgason A, Thorleifsson G, Steinthorsdottir V, Masson G, Barnard J, Baker A, Jonasdottir A, Ingason A, Gudnadottir VG, et al. Nature Genetics 37, 129 - 137 (2005) Published online: 16 January 2005; doi:10.1038/ng1508
- ^ Evidence that the adaptive allele of the brain size gene microcephalin introgressed into Homo sapiens from an archaic Homo lineage; Patrick D. Evans, Nitzan Mekel-Bobrov, Eric J. Vallender, Richard R. Hudson and Bruce T. Lahn; PNAS November 28, 2006 vol. 103 no. 48 18178-18183 [14]
- ^ Early modern human diversity suggests subdivided population structure and a complex out-of-Africa scenario Philipp Gunza, Fred L. Booksteina, Philipp Mitteroeckera, Andrea Stadlmayra, Horst Seidlera and Gerhard W. Webera; 10.1073/pnas.0808160106 [15]
- ^ [16]
- ^ Ancient lineages in the genome: A response to Fagundes et al; Daniel Garrigan and Michael F. Hammer; doi:10.1534/genetics.105.041095 [17]
- ^ Reply to Garrigan and Hammer: Ancient lineages and assimilation; Nelson J. R. Fagundes, Nicolas Ray, Mark Beaumont, Samuel Neuenschwande, Francisco M. Salzano†, Sandro L. Bonatto and Laurent Excoffier ;10.1073/pnas.0711261105 [18] qoute:We must repeat that our results do not exclude the occurrence of some admixture events between modern and archaic humans,
- ^ Genes, fossils, and behaviour; Robert Foley, North Atlantic Treaty Organization google books preview page 101
- ^ Infectious Disease and Host-Pathogen Evolution; Edited by Krishna R. Dronamraju ; ISBN-13: 9780521820660 | ISBN-10: 0521820669
- ^ Calcagno homepage link
- ^ John Hawks homepage link
- ^ MtDNA 15,000-17,000 bp / 3,000,000,000 bp genome DNA
- ^ Genetic Evidence on Modern Human Origins; Alan R. Rogers, Lynn B. Jorde; February, 1995 pfd
- ^ Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in American Anthropologist Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 232-234
- ^ Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in American Anthropologist Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 237
Reviews
- Templeton, AR (2002). "Out of Africa again and again". Nature. 416: 45–51.
- Pearson, Osbjorn M (2004). "Has the Combination of Genetic and Fossil Evidence Solved the Riddle of Modern Human Origins?". Evolutionary Anthropology. 13: 145–159.
- Adams, J (2008). "Human Evolutionary Tree". Nature Education. 1 (1). Macmillian.
- Johanson, Donald C (May 2001). "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?". ActionBioscience. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
External links
- [19] - 'Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans' (pdf) Vinayak Eswaran, Henry Harpending, Alan R. Rogers, Journal of Human Evolution (2005)
- [20] - 'Templeton tree'
- [21] - 'The Hybrid Child from Portugal'
- Biochem. Soc. Trans (2005) 33, 582-585 - J. Hardy and others - Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration (Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens)
- Kent Holsinger's web site - 'Drift and migration' (only 1 migrant per generation between populations of reasonable big sizes can prevent divergence in allelic frequencies)
- Genetics - 'Deep Haplotype Divergence and Long-Range Linkage Disequilibrium at Xp21.1 Provide Evidence That Humans Descend From a Structured Ancestral Population' (first genetic evidence that statistically rejects the null hypothesis that our species descends from a single, historically panmictic population), Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Sarah B. Kingan, Jason A. Wilder, and Michael F. Hammer, University of Arizona, Tucson, Genetics, Vol. 170, 1849-1856, August 2005
- Linfield.edu - 'The Origin of Modern Humans: Multiregional and Replacement Theories', Michael Roberts, Linfield College
- [22] - 'Evidence for Archaic Asian Ancestry on the Human X Chromosome' (suggests ancient RRM2P4 lineage is remnant of introgressive hybrid of anatomically modern humans from Africa and archaic populations in Eurasia), Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Tesa Severson, Jason A. Wilder, Michael F. Hammer, University of Arizona, Tucson, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol 22, no 2, p 189-192 (2005)
- PNAS.org - 'Mitochondrial DNA sequences in ancient Australians: Implications for modern human origins', Gregory J. Adcock, Elizabeth S. Dennis, Simon Easteal, Gavin A. Huttley, Lars S. Jermiin, W. James Peacock, Alan Thorne, Australian National University, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol 98, no 2, p 537-542 (January 16, 2001)
- StephenJayGould.org - 'Out of Africa vs. Multiregionalism', Tod Billings (December 7, 1999)
- TalkOrigins.org - 'The evolution of modern humans: where are we now?' Christopher B. Stringer, General Anthropology, vol 7, no 2, p 1-5 (2001)
- Selection, nuclear genetic variation, and mtDNA