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{{Short description|Country in Western Asia (1789–1925)}} |
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{{Redirect|Qajar}} |
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{{Redirect|Qajar|the modern-day country on the other side of the Persian Gulf|Qatar|other uses}} |
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{{Short description|Former country in Western Asia (1789–1925)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date= |
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}} |
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{{Infobox country |
{{Infobox country |
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|native_name = {{ |
| native_name = {{native_name|fa|دولت عَلیّهٔ ایران}}<br/>{{transl|fa|''Dowlat-e 'Aliyye-ye Irân''}} |
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|conventional_long_name = Sublime State of |
| conventional_long_name = Sublime State of Iran |
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|common_name = Qajar Iran / Qajar Persia |
| common_name = Qajar Iran / Qajar Persia |
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|status = Empire |
| status = Empire |
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|year_start = 1789 |
| year_start = 1789 |
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|year_end = 1925 |
| year_end = 1925 |
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|date_start = |
| date_start = |
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|date_end = 31 October |
| date_end = 31 October |
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|event_start = Establishment |
| event_start = Establishment |
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| date_event6 = [[December 27]], [[1915]] |
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|event_end = Deposed by Constituent Assembly |
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| event_end = Deposed by Constituent Assembly |
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|event1 = [[Treaty of Gulistan]] |
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| event1 = [[Treaty of Gulistan]] |
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|date_event1 = 24 October 1813 |
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| date_event1 = 24 October 1813 |
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| event2 = [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] |
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|date_event2 = 10 February 1828 |
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| date_event2 = 10 February 1828 |
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|event3 = [[Treaty of Paris (1857)|Treaty of Paris]] |
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| event3 = [[Treaty of Paris (1857)|Treaty of Paris]] |
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|date_event3 = 4 March 1857 |
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| date_event3 = 4 March 1857 |
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| event4 = [[Treaty of Akhal]] |
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|date_event4 = 21 September 1881 |
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| date_event4 = 21 September 1881 |
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|event5 = [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] |
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| event5 = [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] |
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|date_event5 = 5 August 1906 |
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| date_event5 = 5 August 1906 |
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| event6 = [[Battle of Robat Karim]] |
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|flag_p1 = Zand Dynasty flag.svg |
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| p1 = Zand dynasty |
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|border_p1 = no |
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| |
| flag_p1 = Zand Dynasty flag.svg |
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| border_p1 = no |
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|flag_p2 = Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti.svg |
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| p2 = Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti |
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| |
| flag_p2 = Coat of arms of Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti.svg |
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| p3 = Afsharid Iran |
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|border_p3 = no |
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| flag_p3 = Afsharid Imperial Standard (3 Stripes).svg |
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| border_p3 = no |
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|flag_s1 = Flag of Iran before 1979 Revolution (Pahlavi Dynasty).svg |
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| s1 = Imperial State of Persia |
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| |
| flag_s1 = State flag of Iran (1964–1980).svg |
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|image_flag = State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg |
| image_flag = State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg |
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|flag = |
| flag = Flag of Iran#History |
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|flag_type = Flag (1906–1925) |
| flag_type = Flag (1906–1925) |
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|image_coat = Imperial Emblem of the Qajar Dynasty (Lion and Sun).svg |
| image_coat = Imperial Emblem of the Qajar Dynasty (Lion and Sun).svg |
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|symbol = |
| symbol = Emblem of Iran#Early Modern Iran (16th to 20th centuries) |
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|symbol_type = Coat of arms (1907–1925) |
| symbol_type = Coat of arms (1907–1925) |
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|image_map = Map Iran 1900-en.png |
| image_map = Map Iran 1900-en.png |
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|image_map_caption = Map of Iran under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th century. |
| image_map_caption = Map of Iran under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th century. |
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|national_anthem = (1873–1909)<br>''[[Royal Salute (anthem)|Salâm-e Shâh]]''<br/>''(Royal salute)''{{center|[[File:Salam-e shah 1906.ogg]]}}<hr>(1909–1925)<br>''[[ |
| national_anthem = (1873–1909)<br>''[[Royal Salute (anthem)|Salâm-e Shâh]]''<br/>''(Royal salute)''{{center|[[File:Salam-e shah 1906.ogg]]}}<hr>(1909–1925)<br>''[[w:fa:سلامتی دولت علیه ایران|Salamati-ye Dowlat-e 'Aliyye-ye Iran]]''<br/>''(Salute of the Sublime State of Iran)''{{center|}} |
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|capital = [[Tehran]] |
| capital = [[Tehran]] |
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|religion=[[Shia Islam]]<br/>minority religions: [[Sunni Islam]], [[Sufism]], [[Iranian Jews|Judaism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Christianity in Iran|Christianity]], [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Mandaeism]] |
| religion = [[Shia Islam]] (official)<br/>minority religions: [[Sunni Islam]], [[Sufism]], [[Iranian Jews|Judaism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Christianity in Iran|Christianity]], [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Mandaeism]] |
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|common_languages = {{plainlist| |
| common_languages = {{plainlist| |
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* [[Persian language|Persian]] |
* [[Persian language|Persian]] (court literature/language, administrative, cultural, official),<ref>Homa Katouzian, ''State and Society in Iran: The Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis'', published by I. B. Tauris, 2006. pg 327: "In post-Islamic times, the mother-tongue of Iran's rulers was often Turkic, but Persian was almost invariably the cultural and administrative language."</ref><ref>Homa Katouzian, ''Iranian history and politics'', published by Routledge, 2003. pg 128: "Indeed, since the formation of the Ghaznavids state in the tenth century until the fall of Qajars at the beginning of the twentieth century, most parts of the Iranian cultural regions were ruled by Turkic-speaking dynasties most of the time. At the same time, the official language was Persian, the court literature was in Persian, and most of the chancellors, ministers, and mandarins were Persian speakers of the highest learning and ability."</ref> |
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* [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] |
* [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] (court language, mother tongue of royal family)<ref>"Ardabil Becomes a Province: Center-Periphery Relations in Iran", H. E. Chehabi, ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 29, No. 2 (May, 1997), 235; "Azeri Turkish was widely spoken at the two courts in addition to Persian, and Mozaffareddin Shah (r. 1896–1907) spoke Persian with an Azeri Turkish accent."</ref><ref name="Azeri Turkish Literature">{{cite news|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-x|title=AZERBAIJAN x. Azeri Turkish Literature |work=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |date= 24 May 2012 |access-date=20 October 2013}}; "In the 19th century under the Qajars, when Turkish was used at court once again, literary activity was intensified."</ref>}} |
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|government_type |
| government_type = {{plainlist| |
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* [[ |
* [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[absolute monarchy]] (1789–1906; 1907–1909<ref name = "a">{{cite book |
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| last =Donzel |
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* [[Constitutional monarchy]] <small>(1906–1925)</small>}} |
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| first =Emeri "van" |
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|title_leader = [[Shahanshah]] |
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| year =1994 |
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|leader1 = {{nowrap|[[Mohammad Khan Qajar]]}} |
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| title =Islamic Desk Reference |
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|year_leader1 = 1789–1797 <small>(first)</small> |
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| isbn =90-04-09738-4 |
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|leader2 = [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] |
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| url-access =registration |
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|year_leader2 = 1909–1925 <small>(last)</small> |
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| url =https://archive.org/details/islamicdeskrefer00donz_0 |
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|deputy1 = [[Mirza Nasrullah Khan]] |
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}} p. 285-286</ref>) |
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|deputy2 = [[Reza Shah|Reza Pahlavi]] |
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* [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]] (1906–1907; 1909–1925) |
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|year_deputy1 = 1906 <small>(first)</small> |
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|year_deputy2 = 1923–1925 <small>(last)</small> |
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|title_deputy = [[List of Prime Ministers of Iran|Prime Minister]] |
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|currency =[[Iranian toman|toman]] <small>(1789–1825)</small><br>[[Iranian qiran|qiran]] <small>(1825–1925)</small><ref>علیاصغر شمیم، ''ایران در دوره سلطنت قاجار''، تهران: انتشارات علمی، ۱۳۷۱، ص ۲۸۷</ref> |
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|footnotes = |
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}} |
}} |
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| title_leader = [[List of monarchs of Persia|Shah]] |
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{{History of Iran}} |
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| leader1 = {{nowrap|[[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]]}} |
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| year_leader1 = 1789–1797 (first) |
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| leader2 = [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] |
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| year_leader2 = 1909–1925 (last) |
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| deputy1 = [[Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi]] |
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| deputy2 = [[Reza Shah|Reza Pahlavi]] |
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| year_deputy1 = 1795-1801 (first) |
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| year_deputy2 = 1923–1925 (last) |
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| title_deputy = {{longitem|[[List of grand viziers of Persia|Grand viziers]]/[[Prime Minister of Iran|Prime minister]]}} |
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| legislature = None (until 1906; 1907–1909)<br>[[National Consultative Assembly]] (1906–1907; from 1909) |
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| currency = [[Iranian toman|toman]] (1789–1825)<br>[[Iranian qiran|qiran]] (1825–1925)<ref>علیاصغر شمیم، ''ایران در دوره سلطنت قاجار''، تهران: انتشارات علمی، ۱۳۷۱، ص ۲۸۷</ref> |
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| footnotes = |
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}} |
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The '''Sublime State of Iran''',{{efn|{{lang-fa|دولت عَلیّهٔ ایران}} ''{{transl|fa|Dowlat-e 'Aliyye-ye Irân}}''}} commonly referred to as '''Qajar Iran''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|k|ɑː|ˈ|dʒ|ɑːr}} {{respell|kah|JAR}} {{Audio|Qajar.ogg|}}}} '''Qajar Persia''',<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-viii-in-the-qajar-period|title=Early Qajar Persia appeared to ...}}</ref> the '''Qajar Empire''',{{efn|{{lang-fa|شاهنشاهی قاجار}} ''{{transl|fa|Šāhanšāhi-ye Qājār}}''.}} '''Sublime State of Persia''', and also the '''[[Guarded Domains of Iran]]''',{{efn|{{lang-fa|ممالک محروسهٔ ایران}} ''{{transl|fa|Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân}}''}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNuRDwAAQBAJ|title=Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature|date=27 January 2012|isbn=9780857723598|editor=Charles Melville|editor-link=Charles P. Melville|pages=358, 361|publisher=Bloomsbury }}</ref> was the Iranian state<ref name="Abbas"/> under the rule of the [[Qajar dynasty]], which was of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin,<ref name="ghani1">Cyrus Ghani. ''Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power'', I. B. Tauris, 2000, {{ISBN|1-86064-629-8}}, p. 1</ref><ref name="William Bayne Fisher 1993, p. 344">William Bayne Fisher. ''Cambridge History of Iran'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 344, {{ISBN|0-521-20094-6}}</ref><ref name="online edition">Dr [[Parviz Kambin]], ''A History of the Iranian Plateau: Rise and Fall of an Empire'', Universe, 2011, p.36, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tZkSLozhXxAC online edition].</ref> specifically from the [[Qajar (tribe)|Qajar tribe]], from 1789 to 1925.<ref name="autogenerated1">Abbas Amanat, ''The Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896'', I. B. Tauris, pp 2–3; "In the 126 years between the fall of the Safavid state in 1722 and the accession of Nasir al-Din Shah, the Qajars evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Iran into a Persian dynasty."</ref><ref>Choueiri, Youssef M., ''A companion to the history of the Middle East'', (Blackwell Ltd., 2005), 231,516.</ref> The Qajar family took full control of Iran in 1794, deposing [[Lotf 'Ali Khan]], the last [[Shah]] of the [[Zand dynasty]], and re-asserted Iranian sovereignty over large parts of the [[Caucasus]]. In 1796, [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]] seized [[Mashhad]] with ease,<ref>{{cite book |title=Muslim World|last1=H. Scheel|last2=Jaschke|first2=Gerhard|last3=H. Braun|last4= Spuler|first4=Bertold|last5=T. Koszinowski|last6=Bagley|first6=Frank|year=1981|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=978-90-04-06196-5 |pages=65, 370|access-date=28 September 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNgUAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> putting an end to the [[Afsharid dynasty]]. He was formally crowned as Shah after his [[Battle of Krtsanisi|punitive campaign against Iran's Georgian subjects]].<ref name="books.google.nl">[[Michael Axworthy]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=k9HyyYrPIGgC&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&pg=PT192 ''Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day''], Penguin UK, 6 November 2008. {{ISBN|0141903414}}</ref> |
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In the Caucasus, the Qajar dynasty permanently lost much territory{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=330}} to the [[Russian Empire]] over the course of the 19th century, comprising modern-day eastern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Armenia]].<ref name="Timothy C. Dowling pp 729">Timothy C. Dowling. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&dq=russo+persian+war+1804%E2%80%931813&pg=PA728 ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''], pp 728–730 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> Despite its territorial losses, Qajar Iran reinvented the Iranian notion of kingship{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=177}} and maintained relative political independence, but faced major challenges to its sovereignty, predominantly from the Russian and [[British Empire|British]] empires. Foreign advisers became powerbrokers in the court and military. They eventually partitioned Qajar Iran in the 1907 [[Anglo-Russian Convention]], carving out Russian and British influence zones and a neutral zone.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":92" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=ANGLO-RUSSIAN CONVENTION OF 1907 |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/anglo-russian-convention-of-1907-an-agreement-relating-to-persia-afghanistan-and-tibet |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=Encyclopedia Iranica |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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In the early 20th century, the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] created an elected parliament or [[Majlis|Majles]], and sought the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, deposing [[Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar]] for [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]], but many of the constitutional reforms were reversed by an [[Russian involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution|intervention led by the Russian Empire]].<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":142" /> Qajar Iran's territorial integrity was further weakened during the [[Persian campaign (World War I)|Persian campaign of World War I]] and the invasion by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Four years after the [[1921 Persian coup d'état]], the military officer [[Reza Shah]] took power in 1925, thus establishing the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], the last Iranian royal dynasty. |
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'''Qajar Iran''' ({{Audio|Qajar.ogg|listen}}), also referred to as '''Qajar Persia''',<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-viii-in-the-qajar-period|title=Early Qajar Persia appeared to ...}}</ref> the '''Qajar Empire''',{{efn|{{lang-fa|شاهنشاهی قاجار}} ''{{transl|fa|Šāhanšāhi-ye Qājār}}''.}} officially the '''Sublime State of Persia''' ({{lang-fa|دولت علیّه ایران}} ''{{transl|fa|Dowlat-e Âliyye-ye Irân}}'') and also known then as the '''Guarded Domains of Persia''' ({{lang-fa|ممالک محروسه ایران}} ''{{transl|fa|Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân}}''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNuRDwAAQBAJ|title=Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature|date=27 January 2012|isbn=9780857723598|editor=Charles Melville|editor-link=Charles P. Melville|pages=358, 361}}</ref>), was an [[Iran]]ian state ruled by the [[Qajar dynasty]], which was of [[Turkic people|Turkic]] origin,<ref name="ghani1">Cyrus Ghani. ''Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power'', I. B. Tauris, 2000, {{ISBN|1-86064-629-8}}, p. 1</ref><ref name="William Bayne Fisher 1993, p. 344">William Bayne Fisher. ''Cambridge History of Iran'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 344, {{ISBN|0-521-20094-6}}</ref><ref name="online edition">Dr [[Parviz Kambin]], ''A History of the Iranian Plateau: Rise and Fall of an Empire'', Universe, 2011, p.36, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tZkSLozhXxAC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q online edition].</ref> specifically from the [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajar tribe]], from 1789 to 1925.<ref name="autogenerated1">Abbas Amanat, ''The Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896'', I. B. Tauris, pp 2–3; "In the 126 years between the fall of the Safavid state in 1722 and the accession of Nasir al-Din Shah, the Qajars evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Iran into a Persian dynasty."</ref><ref>Choueiri, Youssef M., ''A companion to the history of the Middle East'', (Blackwell Ltd., 2005), 231,516.</ref> The Qajar family took full control of Iran in 1794, deposing [[Lotf 'Ali Khan]], the last [[Shah]] of the [[Zand dynasty]], and re-asserted Iranian sovereignty over large parts of the [[Caucasus]]. In 1796, [[Mohammad Khan Qajar]] seized [[Mashhad]] with ease,<ref>{{cite book |title=Muslim World|last1=H. Scheel|last2=Jaschke|first2=Gerhard|last3=H. Braun|last4= Spuler|first4=Bertold|last5=T. Koszinowski|last6=Bagley|first6=Frank|year=1981|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=978-90-04-06196-5 |pages=65, 370|access-date=28 September 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNgUAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> putting an end to the [[Afsharid dynasty]]. He was formally crowned as Shah after his [[Battle of Krtsanisi|punitive campaign against Iran's Georgian subjects]].<ref name="books.google.nl">[[Michael Axworthy]]. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=k9HyyYrPIGgC&pg=PT192&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=SghYVajbGbKQ7AbrloPADQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q=agha%20mohammad%20khan%20conquer%20georgia&f=false ''Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day''], Penguin UK, 6 November 2008. {{ISBN|0141903414}}</ref> In the Caucasus, the Qajar dynasty permanently lost many of Iran's integral areas{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=330}} to the [[Russian Empire]] over the course of the 19th century, comprising modern-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]].<ref name="Timothy C. Dowling pp 729">Timothy C. Dowling. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=QnOXVJXpCcz7UPevhPAK&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=russo%20persian%20war%201804-1813&f=false ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''], pp 728-730 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> Despite its territorial losses, Qajar Iran maintained its political independence and reinvented the Iranian notion of kingship.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=177}} |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===Origins=== |
===Origins=== |
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The [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajar]] rulers were members of the Karagöz or "Black-Eye" sect of the Qajars, who themselves were members of the [[Qajars (tribe)]] or "Black Hats" lineage of the [[Oghuz Turks]].<ref name="kadjarfamily.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.kadjarfamily.org/articles_11.cfm|title=Genealogy and History of Qajar (Kadjar) Rulers and Heads of the Imperial Kadjar House}}</ref><ref name="ghani1" /><ref name="William Bayne Fisher 1993, p. 344" /><ref name="online edition" /> Qajars first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of [[Armenia]] and were among the seven [[Qizilbash]] tribes that supported the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]].<ref name="iranicaqajar">''[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-5 IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period]'', Ehsan Yarshater, '''Encyclopædia Iranica''', (29 March 2012).[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-5] <blockquote>The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelbāš tribes that supported the Safavids. </blockquote></ref> The Safavids "left [[ |
The [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajar]] rulers were members of the Karagöz or "Black-Eye" sect of the Qajars, who themselves were members of the [[Qajars (tribe)]] or "Black Hats" lineage of the [[Oghuz Turks]].<ref name="kadjarfamily.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.kadjarfamily.org/articles_11.cfm|title=Genealogy and History of Qajar (Kadjar) Rulers and Heads of the Imperial Kadjar House|access-date=22 August 2019|archive-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729171350/http://www.kadjarfamily.org/articles_11.cfm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ghani1" /><ref name="William Bayne Fisher 1993, p. 344" /><ref name="online edition" /> Qajars first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of [[Armenia]] and were among the seven [[Qizilbash]] tribes that supported the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]].<ref name="iranicaqajar">''[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-5 IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period]'', Ehsan Yarshater, '''Encyclopædia Iranica''', (29 March 2012).[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-5] <blockquote>The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelbāš tribes that supported the Safavids. </blockquote></ref> The Safavids "left [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]] (present-day [[Azerbaijan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]) to local Turkic khans",<ref name="rohborn">K. M. Röhrborn. Provinzen und Zentralgewalt Persiens im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1966, p. 4</ref> and, "in 1554 [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]] was governed by [[Shahverdi Sultan|Shahverdi Soltan Ziyadoglu Qajar]], whose family came to govern [[Karabakh]] in southern [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]]".<ref name="iranicaganja">[http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f3/v10f372.html Encyclopedia Iranica. Ganja. Online Edition] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311021034/http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f3/v10f372.html |date=11 March 2007 }}</ref> |
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Qajars filled a number of diplomatic missions and governorships in the 16–17th centuries for the Safavids. The Qajars were resettled by [[Shah Abbas I]] throughout Iran. The great number of them also settled in Astarabad (present-day [[Gorgan]], [[Iran]]) near the south-eastern corner of the [[Caspian Sea]],<ref name="ghani1"/> and it would be this branch of Qajars that would rise to power. The immediate ancestor of the Qajar dynasty, Shah Qoli Khan of the Quvanlu of Ganja |
Qajars filled a number of diplomatic missions and governorships in the 16–17th centuries for the Safavids. The Qajars were resettled by [[Abbas the Great|Shah Abbas I]] throughout Iran. The great number of them also settled in Astarabad (present-day [[Gorgan]], [[Iran]]) near the south-eastern corner of the [[Caspian Sea]],<ref name="ghani1"/> and it would be this branch of Qajars that would rise to power. The immediate ancestor of the Qajar dynasty, Shah Qoli Khan of the Quvanlu of Ganja, married into the Quvanlu Qajars of Astarabad. His son, [[Fath Ali Khan]] (born {{Circa|1685}}–1693) was a renowned military commander during the rule of the Safavid shahs [[Sultan Husayn]] and [[Tahmasp II]]. He was killed in 1726. Fath Ali Khan's son [[Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar]] (1722–1758) was the father of [[Mohammad Khan Qajar]] and Hossein Qoli Khan (Jahansouz Shah), father of "Baba Khan," the future [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]]. Mohammad Hasan Khan was killed on the orders of [[Karim Khan]] of the [[Zand dynasty]]. |
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Within 126 years between the demise of the Safavid state and the rise of [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar]], the Qajars had evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Persia into a Persian dynasty with all the trappings of a Perso-Islamic monarchy.<ref name="Abbas">Abbas Amanat, ''The Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896'', I. B. Tauris, pp 2–3</ref> |
Within 126 years between the demise of the Safavid state and the rise of [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar]], the Qajars had evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Persia into a Persian dynasty with all the trappings of a Perso-Islamic monarchy.<ref name="Abbas">Abbas Amanat, ''The Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896'', I. B. Tauris, pp 2–3</ref> |
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===Rise to power=== |
===Rise to power=== |
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{{main|Mohammad Khan Qajar}} |
{{main|Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar}} |
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"Like virtually every dynasty that ruled Persia since the 11th century, the Qajars came to power with the backing of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribal forces, while using educated Persians in their bureaucracy".<ref name="keddie">{{cite journal |first=Nikki R. |last=Keddie |title=The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change 1800–1969: An Overview |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1971 |pages=3–20 [p. 4] |doi=10.1017/S0020743800000842 }}</ref> In 1779 following the death of [[Karim Khan]] of the [[Zand dynasty]], [[Mohammad Khan Qajar]], the leader of the Qajars, set out to reunify [[Iran]]. Mohammad Khan was known as one of the cruelest kings, even by the standards of 18th-century Iran.<ref name="ghani1"/> In his quest for power, he razed cities, massacred entire populations, and blinded some 20,000 men in the city of [[Kerman]] because the local populace had chosen to defend the city against his [[siege]].<ref name="ghani1"/> |
"Like virtually every dynasty that ruled Persia since the 11th century, the Qajars came to power with the backing of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribal forces, while using educated [[Persians]] in their bureaucracy".<ref name="keddie">{{cite journal |first=Nikki R. |last=Keddie |title=The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change 1800–1969: An Overview |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1971 |pages=3–20 [p. 4] |doi=10.1017/S0020743800000842 |s2cid=163247729 }}</ref> Among these Turkic tribes, however, [[Iranian Turkmens|Turkmens of Iran]] played the most prominent role in bringing Qajars to power.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Irons |first1=William |title=The Yomut Turkmen: A Study of Social Organization among a Central Asian Turkic-Speaking Population |date=1975 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |page=8 |quote=For example, the Turkmen of Iran were instrumental in the establishment of Kajar dynasty in Iran in the late eighteenth century, and opponents of the Iranian constitution sought Turkmen support in the revolution of 1909.}}</ref> In 1779 following the death of [[Karim Khan]] of the [[Zand dynasty]], [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]], the leader of the Qajars, set out to reunify [[Iran]]. Agha Mohammad Khan was known as one of the cruelest kings, even by the standards of 18th-century Iran.<ref name="ghani1"/> In his quest for power, he razed cities, massacred entire populations, and blinded some 20,000 men in the city of [[Kerman]] because the local populace had chosen to defend the city against his [[siege]].<ref name="ghani1"/> |
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The Qajar armies at that time were mostly composed of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] warriors and [[Georgians|Georgian]] slaves.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ira Marvin |last=Lapidus |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 |page=469 }}</ref> By 1794, Mohammad Khan had eliminated all his rivals, including [[Lotf Ali Khan]], the last of the Zand dynasty. He reestablished |
The Qajar armies at that time were mostly composed of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] warriors and [[Georgians|Georgian]] slaves.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ira Marvin |last=Lapidus |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 |page=469 }}</ref> By 1794, Agha Mohammad Khan had eliminated all his rivals, including [[Lotf Ali Khan]], the last of the Zand dynasty. He reestablished Iranian control over the territories in the entire [[Caucasus]]. Agha Mohammad established his capital at [[Tehran]], a town near the ruins of the ancient city of [[Ray, Iran|Rayy]]. In 1796, he was formally crowned as [[shah]]. In 1797, Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated in [[Shusha]], the capital of [[Karabakh Khanate]], and was succeeded by his nephew, [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]]. |
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===Reconquest of Georgia and the rest of the Caucasus=== |
===Reconquest of Georgia and the rest of the Caucasus=== |
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{{main|Battle of Krtsanisi}} |
{{main|Battle of Krtsanisi}} |
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In 1744, [[Nader Shah]] had granted the kingship of the [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]] and [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]] to [[Teimuraz II of Kakheti|Teimuraz II]] and his son [[Heraclius II of Georgia|Erekle II]] (Heraclius II) respectively, as a reward for their loyalty.{{sfn|Suny|1994|page=55}} When Nader Shah died in 1747, they capitalized on the chaos that had erupted in mainland Iran, and declared ''de facto'' independence. After Teimuraz II died in 1762, Erekle II assumed control over Kartli, and united the two kingdoms in a personal union as the [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti]], becoming the first Georgian ruler to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia in three centuries.{{sfn|Hitchins|1998|pages=541–542}} At about the same time, [[Karim Khan Zand]] had ascended the Iranian throne; Erekle II quickly tendered his ''de jure'' submission to the new Iranian ruler, however, ''de facto'', he remained autonomous.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}}{{sfn|Perry|1991|page=96}} In 1783, Erekle II placed his kingdom under the [[Protectorate|protection]] of the Russian Empire in the [[Treaty of Georgievsk]]. In the last few decades of the 18th century, Georgia had become a more important element in [[ |
In 1744, [[Nader Shah]] had granted the kingship of the [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]] and [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]] to [[Teimuraz II of Kakheti|Teimuraz II]] and his son [[Heraclius II of Georgia|Erekle II]] (Heraclius II) respectively, as a reward for their loyalty.{{sfn|Suny|1994|page=55}} When Nader Shah died in 1747, they capitalized on the chaos that had erupted in mainland Iran, and declared ''de facto'' independence. After Teimuraz II died in 1762, Erekle II assumed control over Kartli, and united the two kingdoms in a personal union as the [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti]], becoming the first Georgian ruler to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia in three centuries.{{sfn|Hitchins|1998|pages=541–542}} At about the same time, [[Karim Khan Zand]] had ascended the Iranian throne; Erekle II quickly tendered his ''de jure'' submission to the new Iranian ruler, however, ''de facto'', he remained autonomous.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}}{{sfn|Perry|1991|page=96}} In 1783, Erekle II placed his kingdom under the [[Protectorate|protection]] of the Russian Empire in the [[Treaty of Georgievsk]]. In the last few decades of the 18th century, Georgia had become a more important element in [[Iran–Russia relations|Russo-Iranian relations]] than some provinces in northern mainland Iran, such as [[Mazandaran province|Mazandaran]] or even [[Gilan province|Gilan]].{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=327}} Unlike [[Peter the Great]], [[Catherine the Great]], the then-ruling monarch of Russia, viewed Georgia as a pivot for her Caucasian policy, as Russia's new aspirations were to use it as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire,{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|p=327}} both immediate bordering geopolitical rivals of Russia. On top of that, having another port on the Georgian coast of the [[Black Sea]] would be ideal.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=327}} A limited Russian contingent of two infantry battalions with four artillery pieces arrived in [[Tbilisi]] in 1784,{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}} but was withdrawn in 1787, despite the frantic protests of the Georgians, as [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)|a new war against Ottoman Turkey]] had started on a different front.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}} |
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[[File:Capture of Tiflis by Agha Muhammad Shah. A Qajar-era miniature. 03.png|thumb|left|The capture of [[Tbilisi]] by Agha Muhammad Khan. A Qajar-era Persian miniature from the [[British Library]].]] |
[[File:Capture of Tiflis by Agha Muhammad Shah. A Qajar-era miniature. 03.png|thumb|left|The capture of [[Tbilisi]] by Agha Muhammad Khan. A Qajar-era Persian miniature from the [[British Library]].]] |
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The consequences of these events came a few years later when a strong new Iranian dynasty under the Qajars emerged victorious in the protracted power struggle in |
The consequences of these events came a few years later when a strong new Iranian dynasty under the Qajars emerged victorious in the protracted power struggle in Iran. Their head, [[Agha Mohammad Khan]], as his first objective,{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|p=409}} resolved to bring the [[Caucasus]] again fully under the Persian orbit. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the resubjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian empire was part of the same process that had brought [[Shiraz]], [[Isfahan]], and [[Tabriz]] under his rule.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}} He viewed, like the Safavids and Nader Shah before him, the territories no different from the territories in mainland Iran. Georgia was a province of Iran the same way [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]] was.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}} As ''[[The Cambridge History of Iran]]'' states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of [[Fars province|Fars]] or Gilan.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}} It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to perform whatever necessary means in the Caucasus in order to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the demise of the Zands, including putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the ''[[Vali (governor)|vali]]'' of Georgia.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=328}} |
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Finding an interval of peace amid their own quarrels and with northern, western, and central |
Finding an interval of peace amid their own quarrels and with northern, western, and central Iran secure, the Iranians demanded Erekle II to renounce the treaty with Russia and to reaccept Iranian suzerainty,{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|p=409}} in return for peace and the security of his kingdom. The Ottomans, Iran's neighboring rival, recognized the latter's rights over Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries.<ref name="Donald Rayfield p 255">Donald Rayfield. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&pg=PA255 ''Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia''] Reaktion Books, 15 February. 2013 {{ISBN|1780230702}} p 255</ref> Erekle appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, asking for at least 3,000 Russian troops,<ref name="Donald Rayfield p 255"/> but he was ignored, leaving Georgia to fend off the Iranian threat alone.<ref name="Lang">[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1962), ''A Modern History of Georgia'', p. 38. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.</ref> Nevertheless, Erekle II still rejected Agha Mohammad Khan's [[ultimatum]].<ref name="Suny">[[Ronald Grigor Suny|Suny, Ronald Grigor]] (1994), ''The Making of the Georgian Nation'', p. 59. [[Indiana University Press]], {{ISBN|0-253-20915-3}}</ref> |
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In August 1795, Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the [[Aras River]], and after a turn of events by which he gathered more support from his subordinate khans of [[Erivan Khanate|Erivan]] and [[Ganja Khanate|Ganja]], and having re-secured the territories up to including parts of [[Dagestan]] in the north and up to the westernmost border of modern-day [[Armenia]] in the west, he sent Erekle the last ultimatum, which he also declined, but, sent couriers to St.Petersburg. [[Ivan Gudovich|Gudovich]], who sat in [[ |
In August 1795, Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the [[Aras River]], and after a turn of events by which he gathered more support from his subordinate khans of [[Erivan Khanate|Erivan]] and [[Ganja Khanate|Ganja]], and having re-secured the territories up to including parts of [[Dagestan]] in the north and up to the westernmost border of modern-day [[Armenia]] in the west, he sent Erekle the last ultimatum, which he also declined, but, sent couriers to St.Petersburg. [[Ivan Gudovich|Gudovich]], who sat in [[Georgiyevsk]] at the time, instructed Erekle to avoid "expense and fuss",<ref name="Donald Rayfield p 255"/> while Erekle, together with [[Solomon II of Imereti|Solomon II]] and some Imeretians headed southwards of Tbilisi to fend off the Iranians.<ref name="Donald Rayfield p 255"/> |
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With half of the troop's Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras river with, he now marched directly upon Tbilisi, where it commenced into a huge battle between the Iranian and Georgian armies. Erekle had managed to mobilize some 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 from neighboring [[Kingdom of Imereti|Imereti]] under its King Solomon II. The Georgians, hopelessly outnumbered, were eventually defeated despite stiff resistance. In a few hours, the Iranian king Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital. The |
With half of the troop's Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras river with, he now marched directly upon Tbilisi, where it commenced into a huge battle between the Iranian and Georgian armies. Erekle had managed to mobilize some 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 from neighboring [[Kingdom of Imereti|Imereti]] under its King Solomon II. The Georgians, hopelessly outnumbered, were eventually defeated despite stiff resistance. In a few hours, the Iranian king Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital. The Iranian army marched back laden with spoil and carrying off many thousands of captives.<ref name="Lang"/><ref>P.Sykes, ''A history of Persia'', 3rd edition, Barnes and Noble 1969, Vol. 2, p. 293</ref><ref>[[John Malcolm|Malcolm, Sir John]] (1829), [https://archive.org/details/historypersiafr00malcgoog ''The History of Persia from the Earliest Period to the Present Time''], pp. 189–191. London: John Murray.</ref> |
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By this, after the conquest of Tbilisi and being in effective control of eastern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]],<ref name="books.google.nl"/><ref name="Fisher 1991 128–129">{{cite book |quote="(...) Agha Muhammad Khan remained nine days in the vicinity of Tiflis. His victory proclaimed the restoration of Iranian military power in the region formerly under Safavid domination."|title=The Cambridge History of Iran |first=William Bayne |last=Fisher |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=7 |year=1991 |pages=128–129 }}</ref> Agha Mohammad was formally crowned [[Shah]] in 1796 in the [[Mughan plain]].<ref name="books.google.nl"/> As |
By this, after the conquest of Tbilisi and being in effective control of eastern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]],<ref name="books.google.nl"/><ref name="Fisher 1991 128–129">{{cite book |quote="(...) Agha Muhammad Khan remained nine days in the vicinity of Tiflis. His victory proclaimed the restoration of Iranian military power in the region formerly under Safavid domination."|title=The Cambridge History of Iran |first=William Bayne |last=Fisher |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=7 |year=1991 |pages=128–129 }}</ref> Agha Mohammad was formally crowned [[Shah]] in 1796 in the [[Mughan plain]].<ref name="books.google.nl"/> As ''[[The Cambridge History of Iran]]'' notes; "Russia's client, Georgia, had been punished, and Russia's prestige, damaged." Erekle II returned to Tbilisi to rebuild the city, but the destruction of his capital was a death blow to his hopes and projects. Upon learning of the fall of Tbilisi General Gudovich put the blame on the [[Georgians]] themselves.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=329}} To restore Russian prestige, Catherine II [[Persian expedition of 1796|declared war on Iran]], upon the proposal of Gudovich,{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=329}} and sent an army under [[Valerian Zubov]] to the Qajar possessions on April of that year, but the new [[Tsar of Russia|Tsar]] [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], who succeeded Catherine in November, shortly recalled it. |
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Agha Mohammad Shah was later assassinated while preparing a second expedition against Georgia in 1797 in [[Shusha]].{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=329}} Reassessment of Iranian hegemony over Georgia did not last long; in 1799 the Russians marched into Tbilisi, two years after Agha Mohammad Khan's death.<ref>Alekseĭ I. Miller. [https://books.google. |
Agha Mohammad Shah was later assassinated while preparing a second expedition against Georgia in 1797 in [[Shusha]].{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=329}} Reassessment of Iranian hegemony over Georgia did not last long; in 1799 the Russians marched into Tbilisi, two years after Agha Mohammad Khan's death.<ref>Alekseĭ I. Miller. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_8niIYSTqToC&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&pg=PA204 ''Imperial Rule''] Central European University Press, 2004 {{ISBN|9639241989}} p 204</ref> The next two years were a time of muddle and confusion, and the weakened and devastated Georgian kingdom, with its capital half in ruins, was easily [[Georgia within the Russian Empire|absorbed by Russia]] in 1801.<ref name="Lang"/><ref name="Suny"/> As Iran could not permit or allow the cession of [[Transcaucasia]] and [[Dagestan]], which had formed part of the concept of Iran for centuries,{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=330}} it would also directly lead up to the wars of even several years later, namely the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)]] and [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)]], which would eventually prove for the irrevocable forced cession of aforementioned regions to Imperial Russia per the treaties of [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]] (1813) and [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]] (1828), as the ancient ties could only be severed by a superior force from outside.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=330}} It was therefore also inevitable that Agha Mohammad Khan's successor, [[Fath Ali Shah]] (under whom Iran would lead the two above-mentioned wars) would follow the same policy of restoring Iranian central authority north of the [[Aras (river)|Aras]] and [[Kura (river)|Kura]] rivers.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=330}} |
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===Wars with Russia and irrevocable loss of territories=== |
===Wars with Russia and irrevocable loss of territories=== |
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{{main|Russo-Persian War ( |
{{main|Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Treaty of Gulistan|Treaty of Turkmenchay|Treaty of Akhal|Battle of Robat Karim}} |
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[[File:Gulistan-Treaty.jpg|thumb|250px|Map showing Irans's northwestern borders in the 19th century, comprising Eastern [[Georgia (Country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], [[Armenia]], and [[Azerbaijan]], before being forced to cede the territories to [[Imperial Russia]] per the [[Russo-Persian Wars|two Russo-Persian Wars of the 19th century]]]] |
[[File:Gulistan-Treaty.jpg|thumb|250px|Map showing Irans's northwestern borders in the 19th century, comprising Eastern [[Georgia (Country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], [[Armenia]], and [[Azerbaijan]], before being forced to cede the territories to [[Imperial Russia]] per the [[Russo-Persian Wars|two Russo-Persian Wars of the 19th century]]]] |
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On 12 September 1801, four years after Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's death, the [[Russian Empire|Russians]] capitalized on the moment, and annexed [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti|Kartli-Kakheti]] (eastern Georgia).<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 86</ref><ref>[[David Marshall Lang|Lang]] (1957), p. 249</ref> In 1804, the Russians [[Battle of Ganja (1804)|invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja]], massacring and expelling thousands of its inhabitants,{{sfn|Dowling|2014|page=728}} thereby beginning the [[Russo-Persian War ( |
On 12 September 1801, four years after Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's death, the [[Russian Empire|Russians]] capitalized on the moment, and annexed [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti|Kartli-Kakheti]] (eastern Georgia).<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 86</ref><ref>[[David Marshall Lang|Lang]] (1957), p. 249</ref> In 1804, the Russians [[Battle of Ganja (1804)|invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja]], massacring and expelling thousands of its inhabitants,{{sfn|Dowling|2014|page=728}} thereby beginning the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Tucker|editor1-first=Spencer C.|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|date=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=1035|isbn=978-1851096725|quote=January 1804. (...) Russo-Persian War. The Russian invasion of Persia. (...) In January 1804 Russian forces under General Paul Tsitsianov (Sisianoff) invade Persia and storm the citadel of Ganjeh, beginning the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813).}}</ref> Under [[Fath Ali Shah]] (r. 1797–1834), the Qajars set out to fight against the invading Russian Empire, who were keen to take the Iranian territories in the region.<ref>{{cite book |quote=''Even when rulers on the plateau lacked the means to effect suzerainty beyond the Aras, the neighboring Khanates were still regarded as '''Iranian dependencies'''.'' Naturally, it was those Khanates located closes to the province of Azarbaijan which most frequently experienced attempts to re-impose Iranian '''suzerainty''': the Khanates of Erivan, Nakhchivan and Qarabagh across the Aras, and the cis-Aras Khanate of Talish, with its administrative headquarters located at Lankaran and therefore very vulnerable to pressure, either from the direction of Tabriz or Rasht. Beyond the Khanate of Qarabagh, '''the Khan of Ganja''' and the Vali of Gurjistan (ruler of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of south-east Georgia), although less accessible for purposes of coercion, '''were also regarded as the Shah's vassals''', '''as were the Khans of [[Shakki]] and [[Shirvan]], north of the Kura river'''. The contacts between Iran and the Khanates of Baku and Qubba, however, were more tenuous and consisted mainly of maritime commercial links with Anzali and Rasht. The effectiveness of these somewhat haphazard assertions of suzerainty depended on the ability of a particular Shah to make his will felt, and the determination of the local khans to evade obligations they regarded as onerous. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |first=William Bayne |last=Fisher |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |pages=145–146 }}</ref> This period marked the first major economic and military encroachments on Iranian interests during the colonial era. The Qajar army suffered a major military defeat in the war, and under the terms of the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] in 1813, Iran was forced to cede most of its Caucasian territories comprising modern-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], and most of [[Azerbaijan]].<ref name="Timothy C. Dowling pp 729"/> |
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About a decade later, in violation of the Gulistan Treaty, the Russians invaded Iran's [[Erivan Khanate]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Cronin|editor1-first=Stephanie|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions since 1800|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415624336|page=63|quote=Perhaps the most important legacy of Yermolov was his intention from early on to prepare the ground for the conquest of the remaining khanates under Iranian rule and to make the River Aras the new border. (...) Another provocative action by Yermolov was the Russian occupation of the northern shore of Lake Gokcha (Sivan) in the Khanate of Iravan in 1825. A clear violation of Golestan, this action was the most significant provocation by the Russian side. The Lake Gokcha occupation clearly showed that it was Russia and not Iran which initiated hostilities and breached Golestan, and that Iran was left with no choice but to come up with a proper response.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Dowling|editor1-first=Timothy C.|title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond|date=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598849486|page=729|quote=In May 1826, Russia, therefore, occupied Mirak, in the Erivan khanate, in violation of the Treaty of Gulistan.}}</ref> This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two; the [[Russo-Persian War ( |
About a decade later, in violation of the Gulistan Treaty, the Russians invaded Iran's [[Erivan Khanate]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Cronin|editor1-first=Stephanie|title=Iranian-Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions since 1800|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415624336|page=63|quote=Perhaps the most important legacy of Yermolov was his intention from early on to prepare the ground for the conquest of the remaining khanates under Iranian rule and to make the River Aras the new border. (...) Another provocative action by Yermolov was the Russian occupation of the northern shore of Lake Gokcha (Sivan) in the Khanate of Iravan in 1825. A clear violation of Golestan, this action was the most significant provocation by the Russian side. The Lake Gokcha occupation clearly showed that it was Russia and not Iran which initiated hostilities and breached Golestan, and that Iran was left with no choice but to come up with a proper response.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Dowling|editor1-first=Timothy C.|title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond|date=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598849486|page=729|quote=In May 1826, Russia, therefore, occupied Mirak, in the Erivan khanate, in violation of the Treaty of Gulistan.}}</ref> This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two; the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828]]. It ended even more disastrously for Qajar Iran with temporary occupation of [[Tabriz]] and the signing of the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] in 1828, acknowledging Russian sovereignty over the entire [[South Caucasus]] and Dagestan, as well as therefore the ceding of what is nowadays [[Armenia]] and the remaining part of [[Republic of Azerbaijan]];<ref name="Timothy C. Dowling pp 729"/> the new border between neighboring Russia and Iran were set at the [[Aras River]]. Iran had by these two treaties, in the course of the 19th century, irrevocably lost the territories which had formed part of the concept of Iran for centuries.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=330}} The area to the North of the river Aras, among which the territory of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia was Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.<ref name="Timothy C. Dowling pp 729" /><ref name="Swietochowski Borderland">{{cite book |last=Swietochowski|first=Tadeusz |author-link= Tadeusz Swietochowski |year=1995|title=Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition|pages= 69, 133 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ&q=Russia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game:+travelogues+and+orientalism|isbn=978-0-231-07068-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=L. Batalden|first=Sandra |year=1997|title=The newly independent states of Eurasia: Handbook of former Soviet republics|page= 98|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC&q=The+newly+independent+states+of+Eurasia:+handbook+of+former+Soviet+republics|isbn=978-0-89774-940-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=E. Ebel, Robert|first=Menon, Rajan |year=2000|title=Energy and conflict in Central Asia and the Caucasus|page= 181 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-sCpf26vBZ0C&q=Energy+and+conflict+in+Central+Asia+and+the+Caucasus|isbn=978-0-7425-0063-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Andreeva|first=Elena |year=2010|title=Russia and Iran in the great game: travelogues and orientalism|page= 6 |edition= reprint |publisher=Taylor & Francis | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ&q=%3DRussia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game:+travelogues+and+orientalism|isbn=978-0-415-78153-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Çiçek, Kemal|first=Kuran, Ercüment |year=2000|title=The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation|publisher=University of Michigan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5VpAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Great+Ottoman-Turkish+Civilisation|isbn=978-975-6782-18-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ernest Meyer, Karl|first=Blair Brysac, Shareen|year=2006|title=Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia|page=66|publisher=Basic Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssv-GONnxTsC&q=Tournament+of+Shadows:+The+Great+Game+and+the+Race+for+Empire+in+Central+Asia|isbn=978-0-465-04576-1}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |
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As a further direct result and consequence of the Gulistan and Turkmenchay treaties of 1813 and 1828 respectively, the formerly Iranian territories became part of Russia for around the next 180 years, except Dagestan, which has remained a Russian possession ever since. Out of the greater part of the territory, six separate nations would be formed through the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, namely Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and three generally unrecognized republics [[Abkhazia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Artsakh]] and [[South Ossetia]] claimed by Georgia. Lastly and equally important, as a result of Russia's imposing of the two treaties, It also decisively parted the [[Azerbaijanis]]<ref>"However the result of the Treaty of Turkmenchay was a tragedy for the Azerbaijani people. It demarcated a borderline through their territory along the Araxes river, a border that still today divides the Azerbaijani people." in Svante Cornell, "Small nations and great powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus", Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001, p. 37.</ref> and [[Talysh people|Talysh]]<ref>Michael P. Croissant, "The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: causes and implications", Praeger/Greenwood,1998 |
As a further direct result and consequence of the Gulistan and Turkmenchay treaties of 1813 and 1828 respectively, the formerly Iranian territories became part of Russia for around the next 180 years, except Dagestan, which has remained a Russian possession ever since. Out of the greater part of the territory, six separate nations would be formed through the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, namely Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and three generally unrecognized republics [[Abkhazia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Artsakh]] and [[South Ossetia]] claimed by Georgia. Lastly and equally important, as a result of Russia's imposing of the two treaties, It also decisively parted the [[Azerbaijanis]]<ref>"However the result of the Treaty of Turkmenchay was a tragedy for the Azerbaijani people. It demarcated a borderline through their territory along the Araxes river, a border that still today divides the Azerbaijani people." in Svante Cornell, "Small nations and great powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus", Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001, p. 37.</ref> and [[Talysh people|Talysh]]<ref>Michael P. Croissant, "The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: causes and implications", Praeger/Greenwood,1998 – Page 67: ''The historical homeland of the Talysh was divided between Russia and Iran in 1813''.</ref> ever since between two nations. |
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With the conclusion of the [[Akhal Treaty]] on 21 September 1881, Iran ceased any claim to all parts of [[Turkestan]] and [[Transoxiana]], setting the [[Atrek River]] as the new boundary with Imperial Russia. Hence [[Merv]], [[Sarahs, Turkmenistan|Sarakhs]], [[Ashgabat|Eshgh Abad]], and the surrounding areas were transferred to Russian control under the command of General [[Alexander Komarov]] in 1884.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPfcfF8LRWQC&pg=PA469|last=Adle|first=Chahryar|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Towards the contemporary period: from the mid-nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century|year=2005|publisher=UNESCO|pages=470–477|isbn=9789231039850}}</ref> |
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====Migration of Caucasian Muslims==== |
====Migration of Caucasian Muslims==== |
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{{See also|Ayrums|Qarapapaqs| |
{{See also|Ayrums|Qarapapaqs|Circassian genocide}} |
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Following the official losing of the aforementioned vast territories in the Caucasus, major demographic shifts were bound to take place. Solidly Persian-speaking territories of Iran were lost, with all its inhabitants in it. Following the |
Following the official losing of the aforementioned vast territories in the Caucasus, major demographic shifts were bound to take place. Solidly Persian-speaking territories of Iran were lost, with all its inhabitants in it. Following the 1804–1814 War, but also per the 1826–1828 war which ceded the last territories, large migrations, so-called [[Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians|Caucasian Muhajirs]], set off to migrate to mainland Iran. Some of these groups included the [[Ayrums]], [[Qarapapaqs]], [[Circassians]], Shia [[Lezgins]], and other [[Transcaucasus|Transcaucasian]] Muslims.<ref name="Caucasus Survey">{{cite web|url=http://www.caucasus-survey.org/vol1-no2/yemelianova-islam-nationalism-state-muslim-caucasus.php|title=Caucasus Survey|access-date=23 April 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415070826/http://www.caucasus-survey.org/vol1-no2/yemelianova-islam-nationalism-state-muslim-caucasus.php|archive-date=15 April 2015}}</ref> |
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[[File:Взятии штурмом крепости Гянджи.jpg|thumb|[[:ru:Шарлемань, Адольф Иосифович|A. Sharlmann]] "[[Battle of Ganja (1804)|Battle of Ganja]]" during the Russo-Persian War ( |
[[File:Взятии штурмом крепости Гянджи.jpg|thumb|[[:ru:Шарлемань, Адольф Иосифович|A. Sharlmann]] "[[Battle of Ganja (1804)|Battle of Ganja]]" during the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)]] |
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Through the [[ |
Through the [[Siege of Ganja (1804)|Battle of Ganja of 1804]] during the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)]], many thousands of Ayrums and Qarapapaqs were settled in Tabriz. During the remaining part of the 1804–1813 war, as well as through the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|1826–1828 war]], the absolute bulk of the Ayrums and Qarapapaqs that were still remaining in newly conquered Russian territories were settled in and migrated to [[Solduz]] (in modern-day Iran's [[West Azerbaijan province]]).<ref name="Mansoori">{{cite book|last=Mansoori|first=Firooz|title=Studies in History, Language and Culture of Azerbaijan|year=2008|publisher=Hazar-e Kerman|location=Tehran|isbn=978-600-90271-1-8|page=245|chapter=17|language=fa}}</ref> As ''[[The Cambridge History of Iran]]'' states; "The steady encroachment of Russian troops along the frontier in the Caucasus, General [[Aleksey Yermolov (general)|Yermolov]]'s brutal punitive expeditions and misgovernment, drove large numbers of Muslims, and even some [[Georgians|Georgian]] Christians, into exile in Iran."{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=336}} |
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In 1864 until the early 20th century, [[ |
In 1864 until the early 20th century, [[Circassian genocide|another mass expulsion took place]] of Caucasian Muslims as a result of the Russian victory in the [[Caucasian War]]. Others simply voluntarily refused to live under [[Christians|Christian]] Russian rule, and thus disembarked for Turkey or Iran. These migrations once again, towards Iran, included masses of Caucasian [[Azerbaijanis]], other Transcaucasian Muslims, as well as many North Caucasian Muslims, such as Circassians, Shia Lezgins and [[Lak people (Dagestan)|Laks]].<ref name="Caucasus Survey"/><ref>А. Г. Булатова. Лакцы (XIX – нач. XX вв.). Историко-этнографические очерки. — Махачкала, 2000.</ref> |
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Many of these migrants would prove to play a pivotal role in further Iranian history, as they formed most of the ranks of the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]], which was also to be established in the late 19th century.<ref name="mepc.org">{{cite web|url=http://mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/iranian-armed-forces-politics-revolution-and-war-part-one?print|title=The Iranian Armed Forces in Politics, Revolution and War: Part One|access-date=23 May 2014}}</ref> The initial ranks of the brigade would be entirely composed of [[Circassians]] and other Caucasian Muhajirs.<ref name="mepc.org"/> This brigade would prove decisive in the following decades to come in Qajar history. |
Many of these migrants would prove to play a pivotal role in further Iranian history, as they formed most of the ranks of the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]], which was also to be established in the late 19th century.<ref name="mepc.org">{{cite web|url=http://mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/iranian-armed-forces-politics-revolution-and-war-part-one?print|title=The Iranian Armed Forces in Politics, Revolution and War: Part One|date=22 May 2012 |access-date=23 May 2014}}</ref> The initial ranks of the brigade would be entirely composed of [[Circassians]] and other Caucasian Muhajirs.<ref name="mepc.org"/> This brigade would prove decisive in the following decades to come in Qajar history. |
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Furthermore, the 1828 [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] included the official rights for the Russian Empire to encourage settling of [[Armenians]] from Iran in the newly conquered Russian territories.<ref>"Griboedov not only extended protection to those Caucasian captives who sought to go home but actively promoted the return of even those who did not volunteer. Large numbers of Georgian and Armenian captives had lived in Iran since 1804 or as far back as 1795." |
Furthermore, the 1828 [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] included the official rights for the Russian Empire to encourage settling of [[Armenians]] from Iran in the newly conquered Russian territories.<ref>"Griboedov not only extended protection to those Caucasian captives who sought to go home but actively promoted the return of even those who did not volunteer. Large numbers of Georgian and Armenian captives had lived in Iran since 1804 or as far back as 1795." |
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Fisher, William Bayne;Avery, Peter; Gershevitch, Ilya; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles. ''The Cambridge History of Iran'' Cambridge University Press, 1991. p. 339.</ref><ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://feb-web.ru/feb/griboed/texts/piks3/3_4_v3.htm A. S. Griboyedov. "Записка о переселеніи армянъ изъ Персіи въ наши области"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113142046/http://feb-web.ru/feb/griboed/texts/piks3/3_4_v3.htm |date=13 January 2016 }}, Фундаментальная Электронная Библиотека</ref> Until the mid-fourteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in [[Eastern Armenia]].{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|pages=11, 13–14}} |
Fisher, William Bayne;Avery, Peter; Gershevitch, Ilya; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles. ''The Cambridge History of Iran'' Cambridge University Press, 1991. p. 339.</ref><ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://feb-web.ru/feb/griboed/texts/piks3/3_4_v3.htm A. S. Griboyedov. "Записка о переселеніи армянъ изъ Персіи въ наши области"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113142046/http://feb-web.ru/feb/griboed/texts/piks3/3_4_v3.htm |date=13 January 2016 }}, Фундаментальная Электронная Библиотека</ref> Until the mid-fourteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in [[Eastern Armenia]].{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|pages=11, 13–14}} |
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At the close of the fourteenth century, after [[Timur]]'s campaigns, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|pages=11, 13–14}} After centuries of constant warfare on the Armenian Plateau, many Armenians chose to emigrate and settle elsewhere. Following [[Shah Abbas I]]'s massive relocation of Armenians and Muslims in 1604–05,<ref>[[Arakel of Tabriz]]. ''The Books of Histories''; chapter 4. Quote: "[The Shah] deep inside understood that he would be unable to resist Sinan Pasha, i.e. the Sardar of Jalaloghlu, in a[n open] battle. Therefore he ordered to relocate the whole population of Armenia |
At the close of the fourteenth century, after [[Timur]]'s campaigns, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|pages=11, 13–14}} After centuries of constant warfare on the Armenian Plateau, many Armenians chose to emigrate and settle elsewhere. Following [[Shah Abbas I]]'s massive relocation of Armenians and Muslims in 1604–05,<ref>[[Arakel of Tabriz]]. ''The Books of Histories''; chapter 4. Quote: "[The Shah] deep inside understood that he would be unable to resist Sinan Pasha, i.e. the Sardar of Jalaloghlu, in a[n open] battle. Therefore he ordered to relocate the whole population of Armenia – Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike, to Persia, so that the Ottomans find the country depopulated."</ref> their numbers dwindled even further. |
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At the time of the Russian invasion of Iran, some 80% of the population of [[Erivan Khanate]] in [[Iranian Armenia ( |
At the time of the Russian invasion of Iran, some 80% of the population of [[Erivan Khanate]] in [[Iranian Armenia (1502–1828)|Iranian Armenia]] were Muslims ([[Persian people|Persians]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkics]], and [[Kurds]]) whereas Christian [[Armenians]] constituted a minority of about 20%.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|pages=12–13}} As a result of the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day [[Armenia]]), to the Russians.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|pages=1–2}}{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|page=141}} After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in more than four centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1980|page=14}} |
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Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. His grandson [[Mohammad Shah Qajar|Mohammad Shah]], who fell under the Russian influence and made two unsuccessful attempts to capture [[Herat]], succeeded him in 1834. When Mohammad Shah died in 1848 the succession passed to his son Nasser-e-Din, who proved to be the ablest and most successful of the Qajar sovereigns. He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.<ref>Azizi, Mohammad-Hossein. "The historical backgrounds of the Ministry of Health foundation in Iran." Arch Iran Med 10.1 (2007): 119-23.</ref> |
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===Development and decline=== |
===Development and decline=== |
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[[File:A Zoroastrian Family Teheran 1910.JPG|thumb|A [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] family in Qajar Iran]] |
[[File:A Zoroastrian Family Teheran 1910.JPG|thumb|A [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] family in Qajar Iran]] |
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Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. His grandson [[Mohammad Shah Qajar|Mohammad Shah]], who fell under the Russian influence and made two unsuccessful attempts to capture [[Herat]], succeeded him in 1834. When Mohammad Shah died in 1848 the succession passed to his son [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din]], who proved to be the ablest and most successful of the Qajar sovereigns. He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.<ref>Azizi, Mohammad-Hossein. "The historical backgrounds of the Ministry of Health foundation in Iran." Arch Iran Med 10.1 (2007): 119–23.</ref> |
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During [[Nasser-al-Din Shah|Nasser-e-Din Shah]]'s reign, Western science, technology, and educational methods were introduced into Persia and the country's modernization was begun. Nasser ed-Din Shah tried to exploit the mutual distrust between Great Britain and Russia to preserve Persia's independence, but foreign interference and territorial encroachment increased under his rule. He was not able to prevent [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and Russia from encroaching into regions of traditional Persian influence. In 1856, during the [[Anglo-Persian War]], Britain prevented Persia from reasserting control over [[Herat]]. The city had been part of Persia in Safavid times, but Herat had been under the non-Persian rule since the mid-18th century. Britain also extended its control to other areas of the [[Persian Gulf]] during the 19th century. Meanwhile, by 1881, Russia had completed its conquest of present-day [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]], bringing Russia's frontier to Persia's northeastern borders and severing historic Persian ties to the cities of [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarqand]]. Several trade concessions by the Persian government put economic affairs largely under [[Great Britain|British]] control. By the late 19th century, many Persians believed that their rulers were beholden to foreign interests. |
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During Naser al-Din Shah's reign, Western science, technology, and educational methods were introduced into Iran and the country's modernization was begun. Naser al-Din Shah tried to exploit the mutual distrust between Great Britain and Russia to preserve Iran's independence, but foreign interference and territorial encroachment increased under his rule. He was not able to prevent [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and Russia from encroaching into regions of traditional Iranian influence. |
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[[Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir]], was the young prince Nasser-e-Din's advisor and constable. With the death of Mohammad Shah in 1848, Mirza Taqi was largely responsible for ensuring the crown prince's succession to the throne. When Nasser ed-Din succeeded to the throne, Amir Nezam was awarded the position of the prime minister and the title of [[Amir Kabir]], the Great Ruler. |
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In 1856, during the [[Anglo-Persian War]], Britain prevented Iran from reasserting control over [[Herat]]. The city had been part of Iran in Safavid times, but Herat had been under [[Durrani Empire|Durrani]] rule since the mid–18th century. Britain also extended its control to other areas of the [[Persian Gulf]] during the 19th century. Meanwhile, by 1881, Russia had completed its conquest of present-day [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]], bringing Russia's frontier to Persia's northeastern borders and severing historic Iranian ties to the cities of [[Bukhara]], [[Merv]] and [[Samarqand]]. With the conclusion of the [[Treaty of Akhal]] on 21 September 1881, Iran ceased any claim to all parts of [[Turkestan]] and [[Transoxiana]], setting the [[Atrek River]] as the new boundary with Imperial Russia. Hence [[Merv]], [[Sarahs|Sarakhs]], [[Ashgabat]], and the surrounding areas were transferred to Russian control under the command of General Alexander Komarov in 1884.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adle |first=Chahryar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPfcfF8LRWQC&pg=PA469 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Towards the contemporary period: from the mid-nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century |publisher=UNESCO |year=2005 |isbn=9789231039850 |pages=470–477}}</ref> Several trade concessions by the Iranian government put economic affairs largely under British control. By the late 19th century, many Iranians believed that their rulers were beholden to foreign interests. |
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At that time, Persia was nearly bankrupt. During the next two and a half years Amir Kabir initiated important reforms in virtually all sectors of society. Government expenditure was slashed, and a distinction was made between the private and public purses. The instruments of central administration were overhauled, and Amir Kabir assumed responsibility for all areas of the bureaucracy. There were [[Battle of Fort Tabarsi|Bahai revolts]] and [[Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar|a revolt in Khurasan]] at the time but were crushed under Amir Kabir.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Algar|first=Hamid|date=1989|title=AMĪR KABĪR, MĪRZĀ TAQĪ KHAN|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amir-e-kabir-mirza-taqi-khan|url-status=live|access-date=24 July 2021|website=[[Encyclopedia Iranica]]}}</ref> Foreign interference in Persia's domestic affairs was curtailed, and foreign trade was encouraged. Public works such as the bazaar in Tehran were undertaken. Amir Kabir issued an edict banning ornate and excessively formal writing in government documents; the beginning of a modern Persian prose style dates from this time. |
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[[Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir]], was the young prince Naser al-Din's advisor and constable. With the death of Mohammad Shah in 1848, Mirza Taqi was largely responsible for ensuring the crown prince's succession to the throne. When Nasser ed-Din succeeded to the throne, Amir Nezam was awarded the position of the prime minister and the title of [[Amir Kabir]], the Great Ruler. |
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[[File:1800 19th Street NW.JPG|thumb|left|A former Persian [[Legation]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]] |
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At that time, Iran was nearly bankrupt. During the next two and a half years Amir Kabir initiated important reforms in virtually all sectors of society. Government expenditure was slashed, and a distinction was made between the private and public purses. The instruments of central administration were overhauled, and Amir Kabir assumed responsibility for all areas of the bureaucracy. There were [[Battle of Fort Tabarsi|Bahai revolts]] and [[Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar|a revolt in Khorasan]] at the time but were crushed under Amir Kabir.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Algar|first=Hamid|date=1989|title=AMĪR KABĪR, MĪRZĀ TAQĪ KHAN|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amir-e-kabir-mirza-taqi-khan|access-date=24 July 2021|website=[[Encyclopedia Iranica]]}}</ref> Foreign interference in Iran's domestic affairs was curtailed, and foreign trade was encouraged. Public works such as the bazaar in Tehran were undertaken. Amir Kabir issued an edict banning ornate and excessively formal writing in government documents; the beginning of a modern Persian prose style dates from this time. |
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One of the greatest achievements of Amir Kabir was the building of [[Dar ul-Funun (Persia)|Dar ol Fonoon]] in 1851, the first modern university in Persia and the Middle East. Dar-ol-Fonoon was established for training a new cadre of administrators and acquainting them with Western techniques. It marked the beginning of modern education in Persia.<ref name="DĀR AL-FONŪN">{{cite web|title=DĀR AL-FONŪN|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dar-al-fonun-lit|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|access-date=6 January 2016}}</ref> Amir Kabir ordered the school to be built on the edge of the city so it could be expanded as needed. He hired French and Russian instructors as well as Persians to teach subjects as different as Language, Medicine, Law, Geography, History, Economics, and Engineering, amongst numerous others.<ref name="DĀR AL-FONŪN"/> Unfortunately, Amir Kabir did not live long enough to see his greatest monument completed, but it still stands in Tehran as a sign of a great man's ideas for the future of his country. |
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[[File:1800 19th Street NW.JPG|thumb|left|A former Iranian [[Legation]] in Washington, D.C.]] |
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One of the greatest achievements of Amir Kabir was the building of [[Dar ul-Funun (Persia)|Dar ol Fonoon]] in 1851, the first modern university in Iran and the Middle East. Dar-ol-Fonoon was established for training a new cadre of administrators and acquainting them with Western techniques. It marked the beginning of modern education in Iran.<ref name="DĀR AL-FONŪN">{{cite web|title=DĀR AL-FONŪN|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dar-al-fonun-lit|website=Encyclopædia Iranica|access-date=6 January 2016}}</ref> Amir Kabir ordered the school to be built on the edge of the city so it could be expanded as needed. He hired French and Russian instructors as well as Iranians to teach subjects as different as Language, Medicine, Law, Geography, History, Economics, and Engineering, amongst numerous others.<ref name="DĀR AL-FONŪN"/> Unfortunately, Amir Kabir did not live long enough to see his greatest monument completed, but it still stands in Tehran as a sign of a great man's ideas for the future of his country. |
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These reforms antagonized various notables who had been excluded from the government. They regarded the Amir Kabir as a social upstart and a threat to their interests, and they formed a coalition against him, in which the queen mother was active. She convinced the young shah that Amir Kabir wanted to usurp the throne. In October 1851, the shah dismissed him and exiled him to [[Kashan]], where he was murdered on the shah's orders. Through his marriage to Ezzat od-Doleh, Amir Kabir had been the brother-in-law of the shah. |
These reforms antagonized various notables who had been excluded from the government. They regarded the Amir Kabir as a social upstart and a threat to their interests, and they formed a coalition against him, in which the queen mother was active. She convinced the young shah that Amir Kabir wanted to usurp the throne. In October 1851, the shah dismissed him and exiled him to [[Kashan]], where he was murdered on the shah's orders. Through his marriage to Ezzat od-Doleh, Amir Kabir had been the brother-in-law of the shah. |
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Qajar Iran would become a victim of the [[Great Game]] between Russia and Britain for influence over central Asia. As the Qajar state's sovereignty was challenged this took the form of military conquests, diplomatic intrigues, and the competition of trade goods between two foreign empires.<ref name=":92">{{Cite book |last=Andreeva |first=Elena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PmSAgAAQBAJ |title=Russia and Iran in the great game : travelogues and Orientalism |date=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-96220-6 |location=London |pages=20, 63–76 |oclc=166422396}}</ref>{{Rp|20, 74}} Ever since the 1828 [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Treaty of Turkmanchay]], Russia had received territorial domination in Iran. With the [[House of Romanov|Romanovs]] shifting to a policy of 'informal support' for the weakened [[Qajar dynasty]] — continuing to place pressure with advances in the largely nomadic Turkestan, a crucial frontier territory of the Qajars — this Russian domination of Iran continued for nearly a century.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Deutschmann |first=Moritz |date=2013 |title="All Rulers are Brothers": Russian Relations with the Iranian Monarchy in the Nineteenth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24482848 |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=401–413 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.759334 |issn=0021-0862 |jstor=24482848 |s2cid=143785614}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Mojtahed-Zadeh |first=Pirouz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B_F8vFhxsU0C |title=The Small Players of the Great Game: The Settlement of Iran's Eastern Borderlands and the Creation of Afghanistan |date=2004-07-31 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-38378-8 |language=en}}</ref> The Iranian monarchy became more of a symbolic concept in which Russian diplomats were themselves powerbrokers in Iran and the monarchy was dependent on British and Russian loans for funds.<ref name=":13" /> |
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In 1879, the establishment of the [[Persian Cossack Brigade|Cossack Brigade]] by Russian officers gave the Russian Empire influence over the modernization of the Qajar army. This influence was especially pronounced because the Iranian monarchy's legitimacy was predicated on an image of military prowess, first Turkic and then European-influenced.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Rabi |first1=Uzi |last2=Ter-Oganov |first2=Nugzar |date=2009 |title=The Russian Military Mission and the Birth of the Persian Cossack Brigade: 1879–1894 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25597565 |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=445–463 |doi=10.1080/00210860902907396 |issn=0021-0862 |jstor=25597565 |s2cid=143812599}}</ref> By the 1890s, Russian tutors, doctors and officers were prominent at the Shah's court, influencing policy personally.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Andreeva |first=Elena |title=RUSSIA v. RUSSIANS AT THE COURT OF MOḤAMMAD-ʿALI SHAH |url=https://iranicaonline.org/ |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica |language=en-US}}</ref> Russia and Britain had competing investments in the industrialisation of Iran including roads and telegraph lines,<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=INDO-EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT |url=https://iranicaonline.org/ |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=ENCYCLOPEDIA IRANICA |language=en-US}}</ref> as a way to profit and extend their influence. However, until 1907 the Great Game rivalry was so pronounced that mutual British and Russian demands to the Shah to exclude the other, blocked all railroad construction in Iran at the end of the 19th century.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Andreeva |first=Elena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PmSAgAAQBAJ |title=Russia and Iran in the great game : travelogues and Orientalism |date=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-96220-6 |location=London |pages=20, 63–76 |oclc=166422396}}</ref>{{Rp|page=20}} In 1907 the British and Russian Empires partitioned Iran into spheres of influence with the [[Anglo-Russian Convention]]. |
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===Constitutional Revolution=== |
===Constitutional Revolution=== |
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{{main|Iranian Constitutional Revolution}} |
{{main|Iranian Constitutional Revolution}} |
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[[File:Yek toman qajar.jpg|thumb|Qajar-era currency bill featuring a depiction of [[ |
[[File:Yek toman qajar.jpg|thumb|Qajar-era currency bill featuring a depiction of [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar]].]] |
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When [[Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar]] was assassinated by [[Mirza Reza Kermani]] in 1896,{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=440}} the crown passed to his son [[ |
When [[Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar]] was assassinated by [[Mirza Reza Kermani]] in 1896,{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=440}} the crown passed to his son [[Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar|Mozaffar al-Din]].{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=440}} Mozaffar al-Din Shah was a moderate, but relatively ineffective ruler. Royal extravagances coincided with an inadequate ability to secure state revenue which further exacerbated the financial woes of the Qajar. In response, the Shah procured two large loans from Russia (in part to fund personal trips to Europe). Public anger mounted as the Shah sold off concessions – such as road building monopolies, the authority to collect duties on imports, etc. – to European interests in return for generous payments to the Shah and his officials. Popular demand to curb arbitrary royal authority in favor of the rule of law increased as concern regarding growing foreign penetration and influence heightened. |
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[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Mozaffar al-Din Shah and Attendants Seated in a Garden One of 274 Vintage Photographs.jpg|thumb|left|Mozaffar al-Din Shah and Attendants Seated in a Garden One of 274 vintage photographs ([[Brooklyn Museum]])]] |
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Mozaffar al-Din Shah and Attendants Seated in a Garden One of 274 Vintage Photographs.jpg|thumb|left|Mozaffar al-Din Shah and Attendants Seated in a Garden One of 274 vintage photographs ([[Brooklyn Museum]])]] |
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[[File:Persian Cossack Brigade.jpg|thumb|250px|Persian Cossack Brigade in [[Tabriz]] in 1909]] |
[[File:Persian Cossack Brigade.jpg|thumb|250px|Persian Cossack Brigade in [[Tabriz]] in 1909]] |
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Mozaffar- |
Mozaffar al-Din Shah's son [[Mohammad Ali Shah]] (reigned 1907–1909), who, through his mother, was also the grandson of Prime-Minister Amir Kabir (see before), with the aid of Russia, [[Russian involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution|attempted to rescind the constitution]] and abolish parliamentary government. After several disputes with the members of the Majles, in June 1908 he used his Russian-officered [[Persian Cossack Brigade]] (almost solely composed of [[Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians|Caucasian Muhajirs]]), to [[1908 bombardment of the Majlis|bomb the Majlis building]], arrest many of the deputies (December 1907), and close down the assembly (June 1908).{{sfn|Kohn|2006|page=408}} Resistance to the shah, however, coalesced in [[Tabriz]], [[Isfahan]], [[Rasht]], and elsewhere. In July 1909, constitutional forces marched from Rasht to Tehran led by Mohammad Vali Khan Sepahsalar Khalatbari Tonekaboni, deposed the Shah, and re-established the constitution. The ex-shah went into exile in Russia. Shah died in [[San Remo, Italy]], in April 1925. Every future Shah of Iran would also die in exile. |
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On 16 July 1909, the Majles voted to place Mohammad Ali Shah's 11-year-old son, [[Ahmad Shah Qajar|Ahmad Shah]] on the throne.{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|page=597}} Although the constitutional forces had triumphed, they faced serious difficulties. The upheavals of the Constitutional Revolution and civil war had undermined stability and trade. In addition, the ex-shah, with Russian support, attempted to regain his throne, landing troops in July 1910. Most serious of all, the hope that the Constitutional Revolution would inaugurate a new era of independence from the great powers ended when, under the [[Anglo-Russian Entente]] of 1907, Britain and Russia agreed to divide |
On 16 July 1909, the Majles voted to place Mohammad Ali Shah's 11-year-old son, [[Ahmad Shah Qajar|Ahmad Shah]] on the throne.{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|page=597}} Although the constitutional forces had triumphed, they faced serious difficulties. The upheavals of the Constitutional Revolution and civil war had undermined stability and trade. In addition, the ex-shah, with Russian support, attempted to regain his throne, landing troops in July 1910. Most serious of all, the hope that the Constitutional Revolution would inaugurate a new era of independence from the great powers ended when, under the [[Anglo-Russian Entente]] of 1907, Britain and Russia agreed to divide Iran into spheres of influence. The Russians were to enjoy exclusive right to pursue their interests in the northern sphere, the British in the south and east; both powers would be free to compete for economic and political advantage in a neutral sphere in the center. Matters came to a head when [[Morgan Shuster]], a United States administrator hired as treasurer-general by the Persian government to reform its finances, sought to collect taxes from powerful officials who were Russian protégés and to send members of the treasury gendarmerie, a tax department police force, into the Russian zone. When in December 1911 the Majlis unanimously refused a Russian ultimatum demanding Shuster's dismissal, Russian troops, already in the country, moved to occupy the capital. To prevent this, on 20 December, Bakhtiari chiefs and their troops surrounded the Majles building, forced acceptance of the Russian ultimatum, and shut down the assembly, once again suspending the constitution.<ref name=":142">{{Cite book |last=Afary |first=Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl_ZmZ7B5BEC&pg=PA331 |title=The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911: Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy, & the Origins of Feminism |date=1996 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10351-0 |pages=330–338 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite news |last=Meyer |first=Karl E. |date=1987-08-10 |title=Opinion {{!}} The Editorial Notebook; Persia: The Great Game Goes On |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/10/opinion/the-editorial-notebook-persia-the-great-game-goes-on.html |access-date=2021-10-24 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> |
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British and Russian officials coordinated as the Russian army, still present in Iran, invaded the capital again and suspended the parliament. The Tsar ordered the troops in Tabriz "to act harshly and quickly", while purges were ordered, leading to many executions of prominent revolutionaries. The British Ambassador, [[George Head Barclay]] reported disapproval of this "reign of terror", though would soon pressure Persian ministers to officialize the Anglo-Russian partition of Iran. By June 1914, Russia established near-total control over its northern zone, while Britain had established influence over [[Baloch people|Baluch]] and [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiari]] autonomous tribal leaders in the southeastern zone.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Afary |first=Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl_ZmZ7B5BEC&pg=PA331 |title=The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911: Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy, & the Origins of Feminism |date=1996 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10351-0 |pages=330–338 |language=en}}</ref> Qajar Iran would become a battleground between Russian, Ottoman, and British forces in the [[Persian campaign (World War I)|Persian campaign of World War I]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Syed |first1=Muzaffar Husain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eACqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA221 |title=Concise History of Islam |last2=Akhtar |first2=Syed Saud |last3=Usmani |first3=B. D. |date=2011-09-14 |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-93-82573-47-0 |pages=221 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> |
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===World War I and related events=== |
===World War I and related events=== |
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Though Qajar Iran had announced strict neutrality on the first day of November 1914 (which was reiterated by each successive government thereafter),{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=9}} the neighboring [[Ottoman Empire]] invaded it relatively shortly after, in the same year. At that time, large parts of Iran were under tight Russian influence and control, and since 1910 Russian forces were present inside the country, while many of its cities possessed Russian garrisons.{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=9}} Due to the latter reason, as Prof. Dr. [[Touraj Atabaki]] states, declaring neutrality was useless, especially as Iran had no force to implement this policy.{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=9}} |
Though Qajar Iran had announced strict neutrality on the first day of November 1914 (which was reiterated by each successive government thereafter),{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=9}} the neighboring [[Ottoman Empire]] invaded it relatively shortly after, in the same year. At that time, large parts of Iran were under tight Russian influence and control, and since 1910 Russian forces were present inside the country, while many of its cities possessed Russian garrisons.{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=9}} Due to the latter reason, as Prof. Dr. [[Touraj Atabaki]] states, declaring neutrality was useless, especially as Iran had no force to implement this policy.{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=9}} |
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At the beginning of the war, the Ottomans invaded [[Iranian Azerbaijan]].{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=10}} Numerous clashes would take place there between the [[ |
At the beginning of the war, the Ottomans invaded [[Iranian Azerbaijan]].{{sfn|Atabaki|2006|page=10}} Numerous clashes would take place there between the [[Caucasus Army (Russian Empire, 1914–1917)|Russians]], who were further aided by the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] under [[Agha Petros]] as well as Armenian volunteer units and battalions, and the Ottomans on the other side.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} However, with the advent of the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the subsequent withdrawal of most of the Russian troops, the Ottomans gained the upper hand in Iran, occupying significant portions of the country until the end of the war. Between 1914 and 1918, the [[Ottoman Army|Ottoman troops]] massacred many thousands of Iran's Assyrian and Armenian population, as part of the [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] and [[Armenian genocide]]s, respectively.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=243–244}}{{sfn|Üngör|2016|p=18}} |
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The front in Iran would last up to the [[Armistice of Mudros]] in 1918. |
The front in Iran would last up to the [[Armistice of Mudros]] in 1918. |
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==== Battle of Robat Karim ==== |
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{{Main articles|Battle of Robat Karim}} |
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Russian Forces during [[Persian campaign (World War I)]], after occupying the northwest of Iran, marched around [[Qazvin]] and approaching Tehran (the capital of Iran) caused a crisis in Tehran and the dissolution of the national [[Islamic Consultative Assembly|parliament]]. If Tehran had taken, the sovereignty of Iran will be removed, and Iran would be under the rule of the [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russian Empire]]. This issue that [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] and his entourage decided to preserve the Qajar dynasty by leaving Tehran and moving the capital to another place. But the loss of the capital could lead to the rebellion of the cities.<ref name=":43">[[Mohammad-Taqi Bahar|Bahar, Mohammad Taghi]] (1992). A brief history of political parties in Iran: the extinction of the Qajar dynasty. J. First. Amir Kabir Publications. {{ISBN|9789640005965}}</ref> |
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The [[battle of Robat Karim]] was the resistance of the people's forces against the forces of the Russian army to capture the capital of Iran under the command of ''Heydar Latifiyan''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=جنگهای جهانی |url=https://movarekhpod.com/world-wars/ |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=مورخ |language=fa-IR}}</ref> This battle was fought to protect Iran and prevent Iran from being colonized by Russia during World War I. This battle gave politicians time to preserve Iran by separating the royal capital from the state capital. Therefore, with the separation of the government and the monarchy, the capital of the government moved to Qom and then to Isfahan, and the capital of the monarchy remained in Tehran.<ref name=":43" /> |
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If Tehran (the royal capital of Iran) was captured by the Russian army, Iran would become one of the permanent colonies of Tsarist Russia. Due to popular resistance in the Battle of Robat Karim (although Iranian people and Heydar Latifiyan - the commander - were killed and Russia won), time was provided to separate the capital of the state and the capital of the monarchy, and thus Iran was saved from the danger of complete collapse. Although the result of this battle was the victory of the Russians, but in the larger goal, Iran was preserved during the First World War and never became a colony of any country.<ref name=":43" /> |
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===Fall of the dynasty=== |
===Fall of the dynasty=== |
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[[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] was born 21 January 1898 in [[Tabriz]], and succeeded to the throne at age 11. However, the occupation of Persia during [[World War I]] by [[Russian Empire|Russian]], British, and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] troops was a blow from which Ahmad Shah never effectively recovered. |
[[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] was born 21 January 1898 in [[Tabriz]], and succeeded to the throne at age 11. However, the occupation of Persia during [[World War I]] by [[Russian Empire|Russian]], British, and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] troops was a blow from which Ahmad Shah never effectively recovered. |
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In February 1921, [[Reza Shah|Reza Khan]], commander of the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]], staged a [[1921 Persian coup d'état|coup d'état]], becoming the effective ruler of Iran. In 1923, Ahmad Shah went into exile in Europe. Reza Khan induced the [[Majles]] to depose Ahmad Shah in October 1925 and to exclude the Qajar dynasty permanently. Reza Khan was subsequently proclaimed monarch as ''[[Reza Shah Pahlavi]]'', reigning from 1925 to 1941.<ref name="Ervand, 2008 p.91">Abrahamian, ''History of Modern Iran'', (2008), p.91</ref><ref>Roger Homan, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2618173 The Origins of the Iranian Revolution]," ''International Affairs'' 56/4 (Autumn 1980): 673–7.</ref> |
In February 1921, [[Reza Shah|Reza Khan]], commander of the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]], staged a [[1921 Persian coup d'état|coup d'état]], becoming the effective ruler of Iran. In 1923, Ahmad Shah went into exile in Europe. Reza Khan induced the [[Majles]] to depose Ahmad Shah in October 1925 and to exclude the Qajar dynasty permanently. Reza Khan was subsequently proclaimed monarch as ''[[Reza Shah Pahlavi]]'', reigning from 1925 to 1941.<ref name="Ervand, 2008 p.91">Abrahamian, ''History of Modern Iran'', (2008), p.91</ref><ref>Roger Homan, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2618173 The Origins of the Iranian Revolution]," ''International Affairs'' 56/4 (Autumn 1980): 673–7.</ref> |
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Ahmad Shah died on 21 |
Ahmad Shah died on February 21, 1930, in [[Neuilly-sur-Seine]], France.<ref name=qajar2>{{cite web|url=http://www.qajarpages.org/soltanahmad.html |title=Portraits and Pictures of Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar (Kadjar) |publisher=qajarpages.org |access-date=2014-01-21}}</ref> |
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{{Clear}} |
{{Clear}} |
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== Government and administration == |
== Government and administration == |
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{{expand section|date=September 2021}} |
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Iran was divided into |
Iran was divided into five large provinces and a large number of smaller ones at the beginning of Fath Ali Shah's reign, about 20 provinces in 1847, 39 in 1886, but 18 in 1906.<ref>Willem M. Floor, ''A Fiscal History of Iran in the Safavid and Qajar Periods, 1500–1925''.</ref> In 1868, most province governors were Qajar princes.<ref>[[Frederick van Millingen]], ''La Turquie sous le règne d’Abdul-Aziz''.</ref> |
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== Military == |
== Military == |
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{{See also| |
{{See also|Military history of Iran#Qajar Empire (1789–1925)}} |
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{{History of Iran|Qajar-AbbasMirza.jpg}} |
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The Qajar military was one of the dynasty's largest conventional sources of legitimacy, albeit was increasingly influenced by foreign powers over the course of the dynasty.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":0" /> |
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Irregular forces, such as tribal cavalry, were a major element until the late nineteenth century, and irregular forces long remained a significant part of the Qajar army.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rabi |first1=Uzi |last2=Ter-Oganov |first2=Nugzar |date=2012 |title=The Military of Qajar Iran: The Features of an Irregular Army from the Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41445213 |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=333–354 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2011.637776 |jstor=41445213 |s2cid=159730844 |issn=0021-0862}}</ref> |
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In 1921, the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]] was merged with the gendarmerie and other forces. |
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At the time of Agha Mohammad Khan's death in 1797, his military was at its apex and counted 60,000 men, consisting of 50,000 tribal cavalry (''savar'') and 10,000 infantry (''tofangchi'') recruited from the sedentary population.<ref name="Behrooz40">{{cite book|last1=Behrooz|first1=Maziar|authorlink=Maziar Behrooz|title=Iran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia|date=2023|publisher=I.B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnevEAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0755637379|page=40}}</ref> The army of his nephew and successor Fath-Ali Shah was much larger and from 1805 onwards incorporated European-trained units.<ref name="Behrooz47">{{cite book|last1=Behrooz|first1=Maziar|authorlink=Maziar Behrooz|title=Iran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia|date=2023|publisher=I.B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnevEAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0755637379|page=47}}</ref> According to the French general [[Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane|Gardane]], who was stationed in Iran, the army under Fath-Ali Shah numbered 180,000 men in 1808, thus far surpassing the army of Agha Mohammad Khan in size.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> The modern historian [[Maziar Behrooz]] explains that there are other estimates which roughly match Gardane's estimate, however, Gardane was the first to complete a full outline of the Qajar army as he and his men were tasked with training the Qajar army.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> According to Gardane's report of Fath-Ali Shah's contemporaneous army, some 144,000 were tribal cavalry, 40,000 were infantry (which included those trained on European lines), whilst 2,500 were part of the artillery units (which included the zamburakchis). Some half of the total amount of cavalrymen, that is 70,000–75,000, were so-called ''rekabi''.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> This meant that they received their salaries from the shah's personal funds during periods of supposed mobilization.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> All others were so-called ''velayati'', that is, they were paid for and were under the command of provincial Iranian rulers and governors. They were mobilized to join the royal army when the call required to do so.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> Also, as was custom, tribes were supposed to provide troops for the army depending on their size. Thus, larger tribes were supposed to provide larger numbers, whilst smaller tribes provided smaller numbers.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> After receiving payment, the central government expected military men to (for the greater part) to pay for their own supplies.<ref name="Behrooz47"/> |
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During the era of wars with Russia, with crown prince [[Abbas Mirza]]'s command of the army of the Azerbaijan Province, his segment of the army was the main force that defended Iran against the Russian invaders. Hence, the quality and organization of his units were superior to that of the rest of the Iranian army. Soldiers of Abbas Mirza's units were furnished from the villages of Azerbaijan and according to quotas in line with the rent each village was responsible for. Abbas Mirza provided for the payment of his troops' outfits and armaments. James Justinian Morier estimated the force under Abbas Mirza's command at 40,000 men, consisting of 22,000 cavalry, 12,000 infantry which included an artillery force, as well as 6,000 ''Nezam'' infantry. |
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Russia established the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]] in 1879, a force which was led by Russian officers and served as a vehicle for Russian influence in Iran.<ref name=":93">{{Cite book |last=Andreeva |first=Elena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PmSAgAAQBAJ |title=Russia and Iran in the great game : travelogues and Orientalism |date=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-96220-6 |location=London |pages=20, 63–76 |oclc=166422396}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Cossack Brigade |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cossack-brigade |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=Iranica Online |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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By the 1910s, the Qajar Iran was decentralised to the extent that foreign powers sought to bolster the central authority of the Qajars by providing military aid. It was viewed as a process of defensive modernisation; however, this also led to [[Internal colonialism|internal colonisation]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The Swedish-led Gendarmerie in Persia 1911–1916 State Building and Internal Colonization |url=https://iran.princeton.edu/events/swedish-led-gendarmerie-persia-1911-1916-state-building-and-internal-colonization |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=Sharmin and Bijan Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Iran and Persian Gulf Studies |language=en}}</ref> |
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The [[Iranian Gendarmerie]] was founded in 1911 with the assistance of Sweden.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=SWEDEN ii. SWEDISH OFFICERS IN PERSIA, 1911–15 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sweden-ii |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=Iranica Online }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The involvement of a neutral country was seen to avoid "Great Game" rivalry between Russia and Britain, as well as avoid siding with any particular alliance (in the prelude to World War I). Iranian administrators thought the reforms could strengthen the country against foreign influences. The Swedish-influenced police had some success in building up Persian police in centralizing the country.<ref name=":3" /> After 1915, Russia and Britain demanded the recall of the Swedish advisers. Some Swedish officers left, while others sided with the Germans and Ottomans in their intervention in Persia. The remainder of the Gendarmerie was named ''amniya'' after a patrol unit that existed in the early Qajar dynasty. <ref name=":3" /> |
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The number of Russian officers in the Cossack Brigade would increase over time. Britain also sent [[Sepoy|sepoys]] to reinforce the Brigade. After the start of the [[Russian Revolution]], many [[White movement|tsarist supporters]] remained in Iran as members of the Cossack Brigade rather than fighting for or against the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=":1" /> |
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The British formed the [[South Persia Rifles]] in 1916, which was initially separate from the Persian army until 1921.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=South Persia Rifles |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/south-persia-rifles-militia |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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In 1921, the Russian-officered [[Persian Cossack Brigade]] was merged with the gendarmerie and other forces, and would become supported by the British.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zirinsky |first=Michael P. |date=1992 |title=Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/164440 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=639–663 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800022388 |jstor=164440 |s2cid=159878744 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> |
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At the end of the Qajar dynasty in 1925, Reza Shah's Pahlavi army would include members of the gendarmerie, Cossacks, and former members of the South Persia Rifles.<ref name=":1" /> |
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== Art == |
== Art == |
||
[[File:Qajar dynasty era, painting of a seated woman.jpg|thumb|Painting of a woman in Qajar Iran.]] |
[[File:Qajar dynasty era, painting of a seated woman.jpg|thumb|upright|Painting of a woman in Qajar Iran.]] |
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{{See also|Qajar art}} |
{{See also|Qajar art}} |
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{{expand section|date=September 2021}} |
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== |
== Demographics == |
||
In the late 18th century, during the final period of [[Shah]] [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar|Agha Mohammad Khan]]'s reign, Iran (including the [[Khanates of the Caucasus]]) numbered some five to six million inhabitants.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Behrooz |first1=Maziar |author1-link=Maziar Behrooz |editor1-last=Cronin |editor1-first=Stephanie |title=Iranian-Russian Encounters Empires and Revolutions since 1800 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |page=54 |chapter=From confidence to apprehension: Early Iranian interaction with Russia}}</ref> |
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* [[Qajar dynasty]] |
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* [[Abdolhossein Teymourtash]] |
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* [[Austro-Hungarian Military Mission in Persia]] |
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* [[Bahmani family]] |
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* [[History of Iran]] |
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* [[Khanates of the Caucasus]] |
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* [[List of kings of Persia]] |
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* [[List of Shi'a Muslims dynasties]] |
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* [[Mirza Kouchek Khan]] |
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* [[History of the Caucasus]] |
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In 1800, three years into Fath-Ali Shah's reign, Iran numbered an estimated six million people.<ref name="Behrooz38">{{cite book|last1=Behrooz|first1=Maziar|authorlink=Maziar Behrooz|title=Iran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia|date=2023|publisher=I.B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnevEAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0755637379|pages=38–39}}</ref> A few years later, in 1812, the population numbered an estimated nine million. At the time, the country numbered some 70,000 [[Iranian Jews|Jews]], 170,000 [[Iranian Armenians|Armenian]] Christians, and 20,000 [[Zoroastrianism in Iran|Zoroastrians]].<ref name="Behrooz38"/> The city of [[Shiraz]] in the south numbered circa 50,000, while [[Isfahan]] was the largest city at the time, with a population of about 200,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Behrooz38"/> More to the north, [[Tehran]], which became the capital of Iran under the Qajars in 1786 under Agha Mohammad Khan, resembled more-so a garrison rather than a town prior to becoming the capital.<ref name="Behrooz38-39">{{cite book|last1=Behrooz|first1=Maziar|authorlink=Maziar Behrooz|title=Iran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia|date=2023|publisher=I.B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnevEAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0755637379|pages=38–39}}</ref> At the time, as a developing city, it held some 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, but only when the Iranian royal court was in residence.<ref name="Behrooz38-39"/> During summer, the royal court moved to a cooler area of [[pasture]] such as at [[Soltaniyeh]], near Khamseh (i.e. [[Zanjan, Iran|Zanjan]]), or at Ujan near [[Tabriz]] in the [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]] Province.<ref name="Behrooz39">{{cite book|last1=Behrooz|first1=Maziar|authorlink=Maziar Behrooz|title=Iran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia|date=2023|publisher=I.B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnevEAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0755637379|page=39}}</ref> Other Tehrani residents moved to [[Shemiran]] in Tehran's north during summer, which was located at a higher altitude and thus had a more cool climate. These seasonal movements used to reduce Tehran's population to a few thousand seasonally.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> |
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In Iran's east, in [[Mashhad]], holding the [[Imam Reza Shrine]] and being Iran's former capital during the [[Afsharid Iran|Afsharid era]], held a population of less than 20,000 by 1800.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> [[Tabriz]], the largest city of the Azerbaijan Province, as well as the seat of the Qajar ''vali ahd'' ("crown prince"), used to be a prosperous city, but the [[1780 Tabriz earthquake|1780 earthquake]] had devastated the city and reversed its fortunes.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> In 1809, the population of Tabriz was estimated at 50,000 including 200 Armenian families who lived in their own quarter.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> The Azerbaijan province's total population, as per a 1806 estimate, was somewhere between 500,000 and 550,000 souls. The towns of [[Khoy]] and [[Marand]], which at the time were no more than an amalgam of villages, were estimated to hold 25,000 and 10,000 inhabitants respectively.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> |
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In Iran's domains in the [[Caucasus]], the town of [[Nakhchivan (city)|Nakhchivan]] (Nakhjavan) held a total population of some 5,000 in the year 1807, whereas the total population of the [[Erivan Khanate]] was some 100,000 in 1811.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> However, the latter figure does not account for the [[Kurdish tribes]] that had migrated into the province. A Russian estimate asserted that the Pambak region of the northern part of the Erivan Khanate, which had been occupied by the Russians [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|after 1804]], held a total population of 2,832, consisting of 1,529 Muslims and 1,303 Christian Armenians.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> According to the Russian demographic survey of 1823 of the [[Karabakh Khanate]], its largest city, [[Shusha]], held 371 households, who were divided in four quarters or parishes (''[[mahallah|mahaleh]]''). The province itself consisted of twenty-one districts, in which nine large domains were located that belonged to Muslims and Armenians, twenty-one Armenian villages, ninety Muslim villages (both settled and nomadic), with Armenians constituting an estimated minority.<ref name="Behrooz39"/> In the [[Ganja Khanate]], the city of [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]] held 10,425 inhabitants in 1804 at the time of [[Siege of Ganja (1804)|the Russian conquest and occupation]].<ref name="Behrooz39"/> |
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In 1868, Jews were the most significant minority in Tehran, numbering 1,578 people.<ref name="Sohrabi">{{cite journal |last1=Sohrabi |first1=Narciss M. |title=The politics of in/visibility: The Jews of urban Tehran |journal=Studies in Religion |date=2023 |volume=53 |page=4 |doi=10.1177/00084298231152642|s2cid=257370493 }}</ref> By 1884 this figure had risen to 5,571.<ref name="Sohrabi"/> |
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==See also== |
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{{Div col}} |
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*[[Qajar (tribe)]] |
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*[[Qajar dynasty]] |
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*[[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Iranian War 1804–1813]] |
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*[[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)|Ottoman–Iranian War 1821–1823]] |
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*[[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Iranian War 1826–1828]] |
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*[[Anglo-Persian War|Anglo-Iranian War 1856–1857]] |
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*[[Treaty of Paris (1857)|Treaty of Paris 1857]] |
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*[[Treaty of Gulistan]] |
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*[[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Treaty of Turkmanchay]] |
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*[[Persian famine of 1870–1872|Iranian famine of 1870–1872]] |
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*[[Persian famine of 1917–1919|Iranian famine of 1917–1919]] |
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*[[Amir Kabir]] |
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*[[Dar ul-Funun (Persia)|Dar ul-Funun]] |
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*[[Constitutionalization attempts in Iran]] |
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*[[Persian Constitutional Revolution|Iranian Constitutional Revolution]] |
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*[[1st Iranian Majlis]] |
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*[[Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat]] (1st [[List of speakers of the Parliament of Iran|Speaker of the Majlis of Iran]]) |
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*[[Mirza Nasrullah Khan]] (1st [[List of prime ministers of Iran|Prime Minister of Iran]]) |
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*[[Persian Constitution of 1906|Iranian Constitution of 1906]] |
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*[[Anglo-Russian Convention|Treaty of Saint Petersburg 1907]] |
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*[[1908 bombardment of the Majlis]] |
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*[[Minor Tyranny]] |
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*[[Persian campaign (World War I)|Occupation of Iran In World War I]] |
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*[[British occupation of Bushehr]] |
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*[[1921 Persian coup d'état|Iranian coup d'état 1921]] |
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{{Div col end}} |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} |
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} |
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==Sources== |
==Sources== |
||
* {{cite book | last = Atabaki | first = Touraj | title = Iran and the First World War: Battleground of the Great Powers | publisher = I.B.Tauris | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1860649646}} |
* {{cite book | last = Atabaki | first = Touraj | title = Iran and the First World War: Battleground of the Great Powers | publisher = I.B.Tauris | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1860649646}} |
||
* {{cite book | last = Amanat | first = Abbas | title = Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, |
* {{cite book | last = Amanat | first = Abbas | title = Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896 | publisher = I.B.Tauris | year = 1997 | isbn = 9781860640971}} |
||
* {{cite book |last1=Amanat|first1=Abbas|author1-link=Abbas Amanat |title=Iran: A Modern History|date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press|pages=1–992|isbn=978-0300112542}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Amanat|first1=Abbas|author1-link=Abbas Amanat |title=Iran: A Modern History|date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press|pages=1–992|isbn=978-0300112542}} |
||
* {{cite journal|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George A.|author-link=George A. Bournoutian|title=The Population of Persian Armenia Prior to and Immediately Following its Annexation to the Russian Empire: |
* {{cite journal|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George A.|author-link=George A. Bournoutian|title=The Population of Persian Armenia Prior to and Immediately Following its Annexation to the Russian Empire: 1826–1832|date=1980|publisher=The Wilson Center, Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies}} |
||
* {{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=Edmund |author-link1=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor1-last=Hillenbrand |editor1-first=Carole |editor1-link=Carole Hillenbrand |title=Qajar Iran: Political, Social, and Cultural Change, 1800–1925 |date=1983 |publisher= |
* {{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=Edmund |author-link1=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor1-last=Hillenbrand |editor1-first=Carole |editor1-link=Carole Hillenbrand |title=Qajar Iran: Political, Social, and Cultural Change, 1800–1925 |date=1983 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-085-224-459-3}} |
||
* {{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George A.|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|edition=2|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor}} |
* {{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George A.|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|edition=2|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor}} |
||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = BANĀN, ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN | last = Caton | first = M. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/banan-golam-hosayn | encyclopedia = |
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = BANĀN, ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN | last = Caton | first = M. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/banan-golam-hosayn | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Iranica | year = 1988 }} |
||
* {{cite book|last1=Dowling|first1=Timothy C.|title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond [2 volumes]|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598849486}} |
* {{cite book|last1=Dowling|first1=Timothy C.|title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond [2 volumes]|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598849486}} |
||
* {{cite book | last1 = Fisher | first1 = William Bayne | last2 = Avery | first2= P. | last3 = Hambly | first3 = G. R. G | last4 = Melville | first4 = C. | title = The Cambridge History of Iran | volume = 7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia | publisher = |
* {{cite book | last1 = Fisher | first1 = William Bayne | last2 = Avery | first2= P. | last3 = Hambly | first3 = G. R. G | last4 = Melville | first4 = C. | title = The Cambridge History of Iran | volume = 7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0521200950}} |
||
* {{cite book |last1=Floor |first1=Willem M. |author-link1=Willem Floor |title=Traditional Crafts in Qajar Iran (1800–1925) |date=2003 |publisher=Mazda Publishers |isbn=978-156-859-147-6}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Floor |first1=Willem M. |author-link1=Willem Floor |title=Traditional Crafts in Qajar Iran (1800–1925) |date=2003 |publisher=Mazda Publishers |isbn=978-156-859-147-6}} |
||
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Gleave |editor1-first=Robert |title=Religion and Society in Qajar Iran |date=2005 |publisher= |
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Gleave |editor1-first=Robert |title=Religion and Society in Qajar Iran |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-041-533-814-1}} |
||
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = EREKLE II | last = Hitchins | first = Keith | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/erekle-ii | encyclopedia = |
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = EREKLE II | last = Hitchins | first = Keith | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/erekle-ii | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=VIII, Fasc. 5 | pages = 541–542 | year = 1998 | title = EREKLE II – Encyclopædia Iranica }} |
||
* {{cite book | last1 = Holt | first1 = P.M. | last2 = Lambton | first2= Ann K.S. | last3 = Lewis | first3 = Bernard | title = The Cambridge History of Islam | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0yPHRapmT-QC&q=16+July+1909+majlis+ahmad+shah&pg=PA597 | publisher = |
* {{cite book | last1 = Holt | first1 = P.M. | last2 = Lambton | first2= Ann K.S. | last3 = Lewis | first3 = Bernard | title = The Cambridge History of Islam | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0yPHRapmT-QC&q=16+July+1909+majlis+ahmad+shah&pg=PA597 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1977 | isbn = 978-0521291361}} |
||
* {{cite book |last1=Keddie |first1=Nikki R. |author-link1=Nikki Keddie |title=Qajar Iran and the rise of Reza Khan, 1796–1925 |date=1999 |publisher=Mazda Publishers |isbn=978-156-859-084-4}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Keddie |first1=Nikki R. |author-link1=Nikki Keddie |title=Qajar Iran and the rise of Reza Khan, 1796–1925 |date=1999 |publisher=Mazda Publishers |isbn=978-156-859-084-4}} |
||
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = EREVAN | last1 = Kettenhofen | first1 = Erich | last2 = Bournoutian | first2 = George A. | last3 = Hewsen | first3 = Robert H. | author-link3 = Robert H. Hewsen | encyclopedia = |
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = EREVAN | last1 = Kettenhofen | first1 = Erich | last2 = Bournoutian | first2 = George A. | last3 = Hewsen | first3 = Robert H. | author-link3 = Robert H. Hewsen | encyclopedia = Encyclopǣdia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 5 | pages = 542–551 | year = 1998 }} |
||
* {{cite book | last = Kohn | first = George C. | title = Dictionary of Wars | publisher = Infobase Publishing | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1438129167}} |
* {{cite book | last = Kohn | first = George C. | title = Dictionary of Wars | publisher = Infobase Publishing | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1438129167}} |
||
* {{cite book | last = Mikaberidze | first = Alexander | title = Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia | volume = 1 | publisher = ABC-CLIO | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-1598843361}} |
* {{cite book | last = Mikaberidze | first = Alexander | title = Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia | volume = 1 | publisher = ABC-CLIO | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-1598843361}} |
||
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* Lang, David M.: ''The last years of the Georgian Monarchy: 1658–1832'', Columbia University Press, New York 1957 |
* Lang, David M.: ''The last years of the Georgian Monarchy: 1658–1832'', Columbia University Press, New York 1957 |
||
* {{cite book | last = Paidar | first = Parvin | title = Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1997 | isbn = 9780521595728}} |
* {{cite book | last = Paidar | first = Parvin | title = Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1997 | isbn = 9780521595728}} |
||
* {{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran |
* {{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran Volume=7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic | year = 1991 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | last = Perry | first = John | chapter = The Zand dynasty | pages = 63–104 | isbn = 9780521200950 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=false}} |
||
* {{cite book|last1=Suny|first1=Ronald Grigor|author-link1=Ronald Grigor Suny|title=The Making of the Georgian Nation|date=1994|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253209153}} |
* {{cite book|last1=Suny|first1=Ronald Grigor|author-link1=Ronald Grigor Suny|title=The Making of the Georgian Nation|date=1994|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253209153}} |
||
* {{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald Grigor |authorlink=Ronald Grigor Suny |title="They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide |title-link=They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date=2015 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-6558-1}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Üngör |first1=Uğur Ümit |author1-link=Uğur Ümit Üngör |chapter=The Armenian Genocide in the Context of 20th-Century Paramilitarism |title=The Armenian Genocide Legacy |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-56163-3 |language=en}} |
|||
==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
||
* {{cite journal |last1=Behrooz |first1=Maziar |title=Revisiting the Second Russo-Iranian War (1826–28): Causes and Perceptions |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2013 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=359–381 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.758502|s2cid=143736977 }} |
* {{cite journal |last1=Behrooz |first1=Maziar |title=Revisiting the Second Russo-Iranian War (1826–28): Causes and Perceptions |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2013 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=359–381 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.758502|s2cid=143736977 }} |
||
* {{cite book |last1=Bournoutian |first1=George |author-link1=George Bournoutian |title=From the Kur to the Aras: A Military History of Russia's Move into the South Caucasus and the First Russo-Iranian War, 1801–1813 |date=2020 |publisher= |
* {{cite book |last1=Bournoutian |first1=George |author-link1=George Bournoutian |title=From the Kur to the Aras: A Military History of Russia's Move into the South Caucasus and the First Russo-Iranian War, 1801–1813 |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-44516-1}} |
||
* {{cite journal |last1=Deutschmann |first1=Moritz |title="All Rulers are Brothers": Russian Relations with the Iranian Monarchy in the Nineteenth Century |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2013 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=383–413 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.759334|s2cid=143785614 }} |
* {{cite journal |last1=Deutschmann |first1=Moritz |title="All Rulers are Brothers": Russian Relations with the Iranian Monarchy in the Nineteenth Century |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2013 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=383–413 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.759334|s2cid=143785614 }} |
||
* {{cite journal |last1=Grobien |first1=Philip Henning |title=Iran and imperial nationalism in 1919 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=2021 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=292–309|doi=10.1080/00263206.2020.1853535 |s2cid=230604129 }} |
* {{cite journal |last1=Grobien |first1=Philip Henning |title=Iran and imperial nationalism in 1919 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=2021 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=292–309|doi=10.1080/00263206.2020.1853535 |s2cid=230604129 }} |
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* [http://www.kadjarfamily.org/ Qajar Family Website] |
* [http://www.kadjarfamily.org/ Qajar Family Website] |
||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080426091748/http://www.worldisround.com/articles/255115/index.html Some Photos of Qajar Family Members] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080426091748/http://www.worldisround.com/articles/255115/index.html Some Photos of Qajar Family Members] |
||
* [http://www.qajarwomen.org/ Women's Worlds in Qajar Iran Digital Archive by Harvard University |
* [http://www.qajarwomen.org/ Women's Worlds in Qajar Iran] Digital Archive by Harvard University |
||
* [http://hdl.handle.net/10622/ARCH03181 Qajar Documentation Fund Collection] at the [[International Institute of Social History]] |
* [http://hdl.handle.net/10622/ARCH03181 Qajar Documentation Fund Collection] at the [[International Institute of Social History]] |
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[[Category:Monarchy in Persia and Iran]] |
[[Category:Monarchy in Persia and Iran]] |
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[[Category:Modern history of Iran]] |
[[Category:Modern history of Iran]] |
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[[Category:Early |
[[Category:Early modern history of Armenia]] |
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[[Category:Early |
[[Category:Early modern history of Azerbaijan]] |
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[[Category:Early |
[[Category:Early modern history of Georgia (country)]] |
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[[Category:History of Dagestan]] |
[[Category:History of Dagestan]] |
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[[Category:1780s in Iran]] |
[[Category:1780s in Iran]] |
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[[Category:1785 establishments in Iran]] |
[[Category:1785 establishments in Iran]] |
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[[Category:1925 disestablishments in Iran]] |
[[Category:1925 disestablishments in Iran]] |
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[[Category:Former |
[[Category:Former countries of the interwar period]] |
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[[Category:Former countries]] |
[[Category:Former countries]] |
Revision as of 10:07, 7 July 2024
Sublime State of Iran | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1789–1925 | |||||||||||||
Anthem: (1873–1909) Salâm-e Shâh (Royal salute) (1909–1925) Salamati-ye Dowlat-e 'Aliyye-ye Iran (Salute of the Sublime State of Iran) | |||||||||||||
![]() Map of Iran under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th century. | |||||||||||||
Capital | Tehran | ||||||||||||
Common languages | |||||||||||||
Religion | Shia Islam (official) minority religions: Sunni Islam, Sufism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Baháʼí Faith, Mandaeism | ||||||||||||
Government |
| ||||||||||||
Shah | |||||||||||||
• 1789–1797 (first) | Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar | ||||||||||||
• 1909–1925 (last) | Ahmad Shah Qajar | ||||||||||||
• 1795-1801 (first) | Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi | ||||||||||||
• 1923–1925 (last) | Reza Pahlavi | ||||||||||||
Legislature | None (until 1906; 1907–1909) National Consultative Assembly (1906–1907; from 1909) | ||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||
• Establishment | 1789 | ||||||||||||
24 October 1813 | |||||||||||||
10 February 1828 | |||||||||||||
4 March 1857 | |||||||||||||
21 September 1881 | |||||||||||||
5 August 1906 | |||||||||||||
December 27, 1915 | |||||||||||||
• Deposed by Constituent Assembly | 31 October 1925 | ||||||||||||
Currency | toman (1789–1825) qiran (1825–1925)[6] | ||||||||||||
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The Sublime State of Iran,[a] commonly referred to as Qajar Iran,[b] Qajar Persia,[7] the Qajar Empire,[c] Sublime State of Persia, and also the Guarded Domains of Iran,[d][8] was the Iranian state[9] under the rule of the Qajar dynasty, which was of Turkic origin,[10][11][12] specifically from the Qajar tribe, from 1789 to 1925.[13][14] The Qajar family took full control of Iran in 1794, deposing Lotf 'Ali Khan, the last Shah of the Zand dynasty, and re-asserted Iranian sovereignty over large parts of the Caucasus. In 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar seized Mashhad with ease,[15] putting an end to the Afsharid dynasty. He was formally crowned as Shah after his punitive campaign against Iran's Georgian subjects.[16]
In the Caucasus, the Qajar dynasty permanently lost much territory[17] to the Russian Empire over the course of the 19th century, comprising modern-day eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.[18] Despite its territorial losses, Qajar Iran reinvented the Iranian notion of kingship[19] and maintained relative political independence, but faced major challenges to its sovereignty, predominantly from the Russian and British empires. Foreign advisers became powerbrokers in the court and military. They eventually partitioned Qajar Iran in the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention, carving out Russian and British influence zones and a neutral zone.[20][21][22]
In the early 20th century, the Persian Constitutional Revolution created an elected parliament or Majles, and sought the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, deposing Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar for Ahmad Shah Qajar, but many of the constitutional reforms were reversed by an intervention led by the Russian Empire.[20][23] Qajar Iran's territorial integrity was further weakened during the Persian campaign of World War I and the invasion by the Ottoman Empire. Four years after the 1921 Persian coup d'état, the military officer Reza Shah took power in 1925, thus establishing the Pahlavi dynasty, the last Iranian royal dynasty.
History
Origins
The Qajar rulers were members of the Karagöz or "Black-Eye" sect of the Qajars, who themselves were members of the Qajars (tribe) or "Black Hats" lineage of the Oghuz Turks.[24][10][11][12] Qajars first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qizilbash tribes that supported the Safavids.[25] The Safavids "left Arran (present-day Republic of Azerbaijan) to local Turkic khans",[26] and, "in 1554 Ganja was governed by Shahverdi Soltan Ziyadoglu Qajar, whose family came to govern Karabakh in southern Arran".[27]
Qajars filled a number of diplomatic missions and governorships in the 16–17th centuries for the Safavids. The Qajars were resettled by Shah Abbas I throughout Iran. The great number of them also settled in Astarabad (present-day Gorgan, Iran) near the south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea,[10] and it would be this branch of Qajars that would rise to power. The immediate ancestor of the Qajar dynasty, Shah Qoli Khan of the Quvanlu of Ganja, married into the Quvanlu Qajars of Astarabad. His son, Fath Ali Khan (born c. 1685–1693) was a renowned military commander during the rule of the Safavid shahs Sultan Husayn and Tahmasp II. He was killed in 1726. Fath Ali Khan's son Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar (1722–1758) was the father of Mohammad Khan Qajar and Hossein Qoli Khan (Jahansouz Shah), father of "Baba Khan," the future Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. Mohammad Hasan Khan was killed on the orders of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty.
Within 126 years between the demise of the Safavid state and the rise of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, the Qajars had evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Persia into a Persian dynasty with all the trappings of a Perso-Islamic monarchy.[9]
Rise to power
"Like virtually every dynasty that ruled Persia since the 11th century, the Qajars came to power with the backing of Turkic tribal forces, while using educated Persians in their bureaucracy".[28] Among these Turkic tribes, however, Turkmens of Iran played the most prominent role in bringing Qajars to power.[29] In 1779 following the death of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the leader of the Qajars, set out to reunify Iran. Agha Mohammad Khan was known as one of the cruelest kings, even by the standards of 18th-century Iran.[10] In his quest for power, he razed cities, massacred entire populations, and blinded some 20,000 men in the city of Kerman because the local populace had chosen to defend the city against his siege.[10]
The Qajar armies at that time were mostly composed of Turkoman warriors and Georgian slaves.[30] By 1794, Agha Mohammad Khan had eliminated all his rivals, including Lotf Ali Khan, the last of the Zand dynasty. He reestablished Iranian control over the territories in the entire Caucasus. Agha Mohammad established his capital at Tehran, a town near the ruins of the ancient city of Rayy. In 1796, he was formally crowned as shah. In 1797, Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated in Shusha, the capital of Karabakh Khanate, and was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar.
Reconquest of Georgia and the rest of the Caucasus
In 1744, Nader Shah had granted the kingship of the Kartli and Kakheti to Teimuraz II and his son Erekle II (Heraclius II) respectively, as a reward for their loyalty.[31] When Nader Shah died in 1747, they capitalized on the chaos that had erupted in mainland Iran, and declared de facto independence. After Teimuraz II died in 1762, Erekle II assumed control over Kartli, and united the two kingdoms in a personal union as the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, becoming the first Georgian ruler to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia in three centuries.[32] At about the same time, Karim Khan Zand had ascended the Iranian throne; Erekle II quickly tendered his de jure submission to the new Iranian ruler, however, de facto, he remained autonomous.[33][34] In 1783, Erekle II placed his kingdom under the protection of the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Georgievsk. In the last few decades of the 18th century, Georgia had become a more important element in Russo-Iranian relations than some provinces in northern mainland Iran, such as Mazandaran or even Gilan.[35] Unlike Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, the then-ruling monarch of Russia, viewed Georgia as a pivot for her Caucasian policy, as Russia's new aspirations were to use it as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire,[36] both immediate bordering geopolitical rivals of Russia. On top of that, having another port on the Georgian coast of the Black Sea would be ideal.[35] A limited Russian contingent of two infantry battalions with four artillery pieces arrived in Tbilisi in 1784,[33] but was withdrawn in 1787, despite the frantic protests of the Georgians, as a new war against Ottoman Turkey had started on a different front.[33]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Capture_of_Tiflis_by_Agha_Muhammad_Shah._A_Qajar-era_miniature._03.png/220px-Capture_of_Tiflis_by_Agha_Muhammad_Shah._A_Qajar-era_miniature._03.png)
The consequences of these events came a few years later when a strong new Iranian dynasty under the Qajars emerged victorious in the protracted power struggle in Iran. Their head, Agha Mohammad Khan, as his first objective,[37] resolved to bring the Caucasus again fully under the Persian orbit. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the resubjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian empire was part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule.[33] He viewed, like the Safavids and Nader Shah before him, the territories no different from the territories in mainland Iran. Georgia was a province of Iran the same way Khorasan was.[33] As The Cambridge History of Iran states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of Fars or Gilan.[33] It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to perform whatever necessary means in the Caucasus in order to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the demise of the Zands, including putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the vali of Georgia.[33]
Finding an interval of peace amid their own quarrels and with northern, western, and central Iran secure, the Iranians demanded Erekle II to renounce the treaty with Russia and to reaccept Iranian suzerainty,[37] in return for peace and the security of his kingdom. The Ottomans, Iran's neighboring rival, recognized the latter's rights over Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries.[38] Erekle appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, asking for at least 3,000 Russian troops,[38] but he was ignored, leaving Georgia to fend off the Iranian threat alone.[39] Nevertheless, Erekle II still rejected Agha Mohammad Khan's ultimatum.[40]
In August 1795, Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras River, and after a turn of events by which he gathered more support from his subordinate khans of Erivan and Ganja, and having re-secured the territories up to including parts of Dagestan in the north and up to the westernmost border of modern-day Armenia in the west, he sent Erekle the last ultimatum, which he also declined, but, sent couriers to St.Petersburg. Gudovich, who sat in Georgiyevsk at the time, instructed Erekle to avoid "expense and fuss",[38] while Erekle, together with Solomon II and some Imeretians headed southwards of Tbilisi to fend off the Iranians.[38]
With half of the troop's Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras river with, he now marched directly upon Tbilisi, where it commenced into a huge battle between the Iranian and Georgian armies. Erekle had managed to mobilize some 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 from neighboring Imereti under its King Solomon II. The Georgians, hopelessly outnumbered, were eventually defeated despite stiff resistance. In a few hours, the Iranian king Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital. The Iranian army marched back laden with spoil and carrying off many thousands of captives.[39][41][42]
By this, after the conquest of Tbilisi and being in effective control of eastern Georgia,[16][43] Agha Mohammad was formally crowned Shah in 1796 in the Mughan plain.[16] As The Cambridge History of Iran notes; "Russia's client, Georgia, had been punished, and Russia's prestige, damaged." Erekle II returned to Tbilisi to rebuild the city, but the destruction of his capital was a death blow to his hopes and projects. Upon learning of the fall of Tbilisi General Gudovich put the blame on the Georgians themselves.[44] To restore Russian prestige, Catherine II declared war on Iran, upon the proposal of Gudovich,[44] and sent an army under Valerian Zubov to the Qajar possessions on April of that year, but the new Tsar Paul I, who succeeded Catherine in November, shortly recalled it.
Agha Mohammad Shah was later assassinated while preparing a second expedition against Georgia in 1797 in Shusha.[44] Reassessment of Iranian hegemony over Georgia did not last long; in 1799 the Russians marched into Tbilisi, two years after Agha Mohammad Khan's death.[45] The next two years were a time of muddle and confusion, and the weakened and devastated Georgian kingdom, with its capital half in ruins, was easily absorbed by Russia in 1801.[39][40] As Iran could not permit or allow the cession of Transcaucasia and Dagestan, which had formed part of the concept of Iran for centuries,[17] it would also directly lead up to the wars of even several years later, namely the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813) and Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), which would eventually prove for the irrevocable forced cession of aforementioned regions to Imperial Russia per the treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Turkmenchay (1828), as the ancient ties could only be severed by a superior force from outside.[17] It was therefore also inevitable that Agha Mohammad Khan's successor, Fath Ali Shah (under whom Iran would lead the two above-mentioned wars) would follow the same policy of restoring Iranian central authority north of the Aras and Kura rivers.[17]
Wars with Russia and irrevocable loss of territories
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gulistan-Treaty.jpg/250px-Gulistan-Treaty.jpg)
On 12 September 1801, four years after Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's death, the Russians capitalized on the moment, and annexed Kartli-Kakheti (eastern Georgia).[46][47] In 1804, the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja, massacring and expelling thousands of its inhabitants,[48] thereby beginning the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813.[49] Under Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834), the Qajars set out to fight against the invading Russian Empire, who were keen to take the Iranian territories in the region.[50] This period marked the first major economic and military encroachments on Iranian interests during the colonial era. The Qajar army suffered a major military defeat in the war, and under the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, Iran was forced to cede most of its Caucasian territories comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of Azerbaijan.[18]
About a decade later, in violation of the Gulistan Treaty, the Russians invaded Iran's Erivan Khanate.[51][52] This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two; the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828. It ended even more disastrously for Qajar Iran with temporary occupation of Tabriz and the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay in 1828, acknowledging Russian sovereignty over the entire South Caucasus and Dagestan, as well as therefore the ceding of what is nowadays Armenia and the remaining part of Republic of Azerbaijan;[18] the new border between neighboring Russia and Iran were set at the Aras River. Iran had by these two treaties, in the course of the 19th century, irrevocably lost the territories which had formed part of the concept of Iran for centuries.[17] The area to the North of the river Aras, among which the territory of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia was Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.[18][53][54][55][56][57][58]
As a further direct result and consequence of the Gulistan and Turkmenchay treaties of 1813 and 1828 respectively, the formerly Iranian territories became part of Russia for around the next 180 years, except Dagestan, which has remained a Russian possession ever since. Out of the greater part of the territory, six separate nations would be formed through the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, namely Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and three generally unrecognized republics Abkhazia, Artsakh and South Ossetia claimed by Georgia. Lastly and equally important, as a result of Russia's imposing of the two treaties, It also decisively parted the Azerbaijanis[59] and Talysh[60] ever since between two nations.
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Battle of Sultanabad, 13 February 1812. State Hermitage Museum.
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Storming of Lankaran, 13 January 1813. Franz Roubaud.
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Battle of Ganja, 1826. Franz Roubaud. Part of the collection of the Museum for History, Baku.
Migration of Caucasian Muslims
Following the official losing of the aforementioned vast territories in the Caucasus, major demographic shifts were bound to take place. Solidly Persian-speaking territories of Iran were lost, with all its inhabitants in it. Following the 1804–1814 War, but also per the 1826–1828 war which ceded the last territories, large migrations, so-called Caucasian Muhajirs, set off to migrate to mainland Iran. Some of these groups included the Ayrums, Qarapapaqs, Circassians, Shia Lezgins, and other Transcaucasian Muslims.[61]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/%D0%92%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%93%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%93%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8.jpg)
Through the Battle of Ganja of 1804 during the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813), many thousands of Ayrums and Qarapapaqs were settled in Tabriz. During the remaining part of the 1804–1813 war, as well as through the 1826–1828 war, the absolute bulk of the Ayrums and Qarapapaqs that were still remaining in newly conquered Russian territories were settled in and migrated to Solduz (in modern-day Iran's West Azerbaijan province).[62] As The Cambridge History of Iran states; "The steady encroachment of Russian troops along the frontier in the Caucasus, General Yermolov's brutal punitive expeditions and misgovernment, drove large numbers of Muslims, and even some Georgian Christians, into exile in Iran."[63]
In 1864 until the early 20th century, another mass expulsion took place of Caucasian Muslims as a result of the Russian victory in the Caucasian War. Others simply voluntarily refused to live under Christian Russian rule, and thus disembarked for Turkey or Iran. These migrations once again, towards Iran, included masses of Caucasian Azerbaijanis, other Transcaucasian Muslims, as well as many North Caucasian Muslims, such as Circassians, Shia Lezgins and Laks.[61][64] Many of these migrants would prove to play a pivotal role in further Iranian history, as they formed most of the ranks of the Persian Cossack Brigade, which was also to be established in the late 19th century.[65] The initial ranks of the brigade would be entirely composed of Circassians and other Caucasian Muhajirs.[65] This brigade would prove decisive in the following decades to come in Qajar history.
Furthermore, the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay included the official rights for the Russian Empire to encourage settling of Armenians from Iran in the newly conquered Russian territories.[66][67] Until the mid-fourteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in Eastern Armenia.[68] At the close of the fourteenth century, after Timur's campaigns, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.[68] After centuries of constant warfare on the Armenian Plateau, many Armenians chose to emigrate and settle elsewhere. Following Shah Abbas I's massive relocation of Armenians and Muslims in 1604–05,[69] their numbers dwindled even further.
At the time of the Russian invasion of Iran, some 80% of the population of Erivan Khanate in Iranian Armenia were Muslims (Persians, Turkics, and Kurds) whereas Christian Armenians constituted a minority of about 20%.[70] As a result of the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day Armenia), to the Russians.[71][72] After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in more than four centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia.[73]
Development and decline
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Molla2.jpg/220px-Molla2.jpg)
Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. His grandson Mohammad Shah, who fell under the Russian influence and made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Herat, succeeded him in 1834. When Mohammad Shah died in 1848 the succession passed to his son Naser al-Din, who proved to be the ablest and most successful of the Qajar sovereigns. He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.[74]
During Naser al-Din Shah's reign, Western science, technology, and educational methods were introduced into Iran and the country's modernization was begun. Naser al-Din Shah tried to exploit the mutual distrust between Great Britain and Russia to preserve Iran's independence, but foreign interference and territorial encroachment increased under his rule. He was not able to prevent Britain and Russia from encroaching into regions of traditional Iranian influence.
In 1856, during the Anglo-Persian War, Britain prevented Iran from reasserting control over Herat. The city had been part of Iran in Safavid times, but Herat had been under Durrani rule since the mid–18th century. Britain also extended its control to other areas of the Persian Gulf during the 19th century. Meanwhile, by 1881, Russia had completed its conquest of present-day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, bringing Russia's frontier to Persia's northeastern borders and severing historic Iranian ties to the cities of Bukhara, Merv and Samarqand. With the conclusion of the Treaty of Akhal on 21 September 1881, Iran ceased any claim to all parts of Turkestan and Transoxiana, setting the Atrek River as the new boundary with Imperial Russia. Hence Merv, Sarakhs, Ashgabat, and the surrounding areas were transferred to Russian control under the command of General Alexander Komarov in 1884.[75] Several trade concessions by the Iranian government put economic affairs largely under British control. By the late 19th century, many Iranians believed that their rulers were beholden to foreign interests.
Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir, was the young prince Naser al-Din's advisor and constable. With the death of Mohammad Shah in 1848, Mirza Taqi was largely responsible for ensuring the crown prince's succession to the throne. When Nasser ed-Din succeeded to the throne, Amir Nezam was awarded the position of the prime minister and the title of Amir Kabir, the Great Ruler.
At that time, Iran was nearly bankrupt. During the next two and a half years Amir Kabir initiated important reforms in virtually all sectors of society. Government expenditure was slashed, and a distinction was made between the private and public purses. The instruments of central administration were overhauled, and Amir Kabir assumed responsibility for all areas of the bureaucracy. There were Bahai revolts and a revolt in Khorasan at the time but were crushed under Amir Kabir.[76] Foreign interference in Iran's domestic affairs was curtailed, and foreign trade was encouraged. Public works such as the bazaar in Tehran were undertaken. Amir Kabir issued an edict banning ornate and excessively formal writing in government documents; the beginning of a modern Persian prose style dates from this time.
One of the greatest achievements of Amir Kabir was the building of Dar ol Fonoon in 1851, the first modern university in Iran and the Middle East. Dar-ol-Fonoon was established for training a new cadre of administrators and acquainting them with Western techniques. It marked the beginning of modern education in Iran.[77] Amir Kabir ordered the school to be built on the edge of the city so it could be expanded as needed. He hired French and Russian instructors as well as Iranians to teach subjects as different as Language, Medicine, Law, Geography, History, Economics, and Engineering, amongst numerous others.[77] Unfortunately, Amir Kabir did not live long enough to see his greatest monument completed, but it still stands in Tehran as a sign of a great man's ideas for the future of his country.
These reforms antagonized various notables who had been excluded from the government. They regarded the Amir Kabir as a social upstart and a threat to their interests, and they formed a coalition against him, in which the queen mother was active. She convinced the young shah that Amir Kabir wanted to usurp the throne. In October 1851, the shah dismissed him and exiled him to Kashan, where he was murdered on the shah's orders. Through his marriage to Ezzat od-Doleh, Amir Kabir had been the brother-in-law of the shah.
Qajar Iran would become a victim of the Great Game between Russia and Britain for influence over central Asia. As the Qajar state's sovereignty was challenged this took the form of military conquests, diplomatic intrigues, and the competition of trade goods between two foreign empires.[21]: 20, 74 Ever since the 1828 Treaty of Turkmanchay, Russia had received territorial domination in Iran. With the Romanovs shifting to a policy of 'informal support' for the weakened Qajar dynasty — continuing to place pressure with advances in the largely nomadic Turkestan, a crucial frontier territory of the Qajars — this Russian domination of Iran continued for nearly a century.[20][78] The Iranian monarchy became more of a symbolic concept in which Russian diplomats were themselves powerbrokers in Iran and the monarchy was dependent on British and Russian loans for funds.[20]
In 1879, the establishment of the Cossack Brigade by Russian officers gave the Russian Empire influence over the modernization of the Qajar army. This influence was especially pronounced because the Iranian monarchy's legitimacy was predicated on an image of military prowess, first Turkic and then European-influenced.[20][79] By the 1890s, Russian tutors, doctors and officers were prominent at the Shah's court, influencing policy personally.[20][80] Russia and Britain had competing investments in the industrialisation of Iran including roads and telegraph lines,[81] as a way to profit and extend their influence. However, until 1907 the Great Game rivalry was so pronounced that mutual British and Russian demands to the Shah to exclude the other, blocked all railroad construction in Iran at the end of the 19th century.[82]: 20 In 1907 the British and Russian Empires partitioned Iran into spheres of influence with the Anglo-Russian Convention.
Constitutional Revolution
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yek_toman_qajar.jpg/220px-Yek_toman_qajar.jpg)
When Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar was assassinated by Mirza Reza Kermani in 1896,[83] the crown passed to his son Mozaffar al-Din.[83] Mozaffar al-Din Shah was a moderate, but relatively ineffective ruler. Royal extravagances coincided with an inadequate ability to secure state revenue which further exacerbated the financial woes of the Qajar. In response, the Shah procured two large loans from Russia (in part to fund personal trips to Europe). Public anger mounted as the Shah sold off concessions – such as road building monopolies, the authority to collect duties on imports, etc. – to European interests in return for generous payments to the Shah and his officials. Popular demand to curb arbitrary royal authority in favor of the rule of law increased as concern regarding growing foreign penetration and influence heightened.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Mozaffar_al-Din_Shah_and_Attendants_Seated_in_a_Garden_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Mozaffar_al-Din_Shah_and_Attendants_Seated_in_a_Garden_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg)
The shah's failure to respond to protests by the religious establishment, the merchants, and other classes led the merchants and clerical leaders in January 1906 to take sanctuary from probable arrest in mosques in Tehran and outside the capital. When the shah reneged on a promise to permit the establishment of a "house of justice", or consultative assembly, 10,000 people, led by the merchants, took sanctuary in June in the compound of the British legation in Tehran. In August, the shah, through the issue of a decree promised a constitution. In October, an elected assembly convened and drew up a constitution that provided for strict limitations on royal power, an elected parliament, or Majles, with wide powers to represent the people and a government with a cabinet subject to confirmation by the Majles. The shah signed the constitution on 30 December 1906, but refusing to forfeit all of his power to the Majles, attached a caveat that made his signature on all laws required for their enactment. He died five days later. The Supplementary Fundamental Laws approved in 1907 provided, within limits, for freedom of press, speech, and association, and for the security of life and property. The hopes for the constitutional rule were not realized, however.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg/250px-Persian_Cossack_Brigade.jpg)
Mozaffar al-Din Shah's son Mohammad Ali Shah (reigned 1907–1909), who, through his mother, was also the grandson of Prime-Minister Amir Kabir (see before), with the aid of Russia, attempted to rescind the constitution and abolish parliamentary government. After several disputes with the members of the Majles, in June 1908 he used his Russian-officered Persian Cossack Brigade (almost solely composed of Caucasian Muhajirs), to bomb the Majlis building, arrest many of the deputies (December 1907), and close down the assembly (June 1908).[84] Resistance to the shah, however, coalesced in Tabriz, Isfahan, Rasht, and elsewhere. In July 1909, constitutional forces marched from Rasht to Tehran led by Mohammad Vali Khan Sepahsalar Khalatbari Tonekaboni, deposed the Shah, and re-established the constitution. The ex-shah went into exile in Russia. Shah died in San Remo, Italy, in April 1925. Every future Shah of Iran would also die in exile.
On 16 July 1909, the Majles voted to place Mohammad Ali Shah's 11-year-old son, Ahmad Shah on the throne.[85] Although the constitutional forces had triumphed, they faced serious difficulties. The upheavals of the Constitutional Revolution and civil war had undermined stability and trade. In addition, the ex-shah, with Russian support, attempted to regain his throne, landing troops in July 1910. Most serious of all, the hope that the Constitutional Revolution would inaugurate a new era of independence from the great powers ended when, under the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907, Britain and Russia agreed to divide Iran into spheres of influence. The Russians were to enjoy exclusive right to pursue their interests in the northern sphere, the British in the south and east; both powers would be free to compete for economic and political advantage in a neutral sphere in the center. Matters came to a head when Morgan Shuster, a United States administrator hired as treasurer-general by the Persian government to reform its finances, sought to collect taxes from powerful officials who were Russian protégés and to send members of the treasury gendarmerie, a tax department police force, into the Russian zone. When in December 1911 the Majlis unanimously refused a Russian ultimatum demanding Shuster's dismissal, Russian troops, already in the country, moved to occupy the capital. To prevent this, on 20 December, Bakhtiari chiefs and their troops surrounded the Majles building, forced acceptance of the Russian ultimatum, and shut down the assembly, once again suspending the constitution.[23][86]
British and Russian officials coordinated as the Russian army, still present in Iran, invaded the capital again and suspended the parliament. The Tsar ordered the troops in Tabriz "to act harshly and quickly", while purges were ordered, leading to many executions of prominent revolutionaries. The British Ambassador, George Head Barclay reported disapproval of this "reign of terror", though would soon pressure Persian ministers to officialize the Anglo-Russian partition of Iran. By June 1914, Russia established near-total control over its northern zone, while Britain had established influence over Baluch and Bakhtiari autonomous tribal leaders in the southeastern zone.[87] Qajar Iran would become a battleground between Russian, Ottoman, and British forces in the Persian campaign of World War I.[88][87]
World War I and related events
Though Qajar Iran had announced strict neutrality on the first day of November 1914 (which was reiterated by each successive government thereafter),[89] the neighboring Ottoman Empire invaded it relatively shortly after, in the same year. At that time, large parts of Iran were under tight Russian influence and control, and since 1910 Russian forces were present inside the country, while many of its cities possessed Russian garrisons.[89] Due to the latter reason, as Prof. Dr. Touraj Atabaki states, declaring neutrality was useless, especially as Iran had no force to implement this policy.[89]
At the beginning of the war, the Ottomans invaded Iranian Azerbaijan.[90] Numerous clashes would take place there between the Russians, who were further aided by the Assyrians under Agha Petros as well as Armenian volunteer units and battalions, and the Ottomans on the other side.[citation needed] However, with the advent of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent withdrawal of most of the Russian troops, the Ottomans gained the upper hand in Iran, occupying significant portions of the country until the end of the war. Between 1914 and 1918, the Ottoman troops massacred many thousands of Iran's Assyrian and Armenian population, as part of the Assyrian and Armenian genocides, respectively.[91][92]
The front in Iran would last up to the Armistice of Mudros in 1918.
Battle of Robat Karim
Russian Forces during Persian campaign (World War I), after occupying the northwest of Iran, marched around Qazvin and approaching Tehran (the capital of Iran) caused a crisis in Tehran and the dissolution of the national parliament. If Tehran had taken, the sovereignty of Iran will be removed, and Iran would be under the rule of the Tsarist Russian Empire. This issue that Ahmad Shah Qajar and his entourage decided to preserve the Qajar dynasty by leaving Tehran and moving the capital to another place. But the loss of the capital could lead to the rebellion of the cities.[93]
The battle of Robat Karim was the resistance of the people's forces against the forces of the Russian army to capture the capital of Iran under the command of Heydar Latifiyan.[94] This battle was fought to protect Iran and prevent Iran from being colonized by Russia during World War I. This battle gave politicians time to preserve Iran by separating the royal capital from the state capital. Therefore, with the separation of the government and the monarchy, the capital of the government moved to Qom and then to Isfahan, and the capital of the monarchy remained in Tehran.[93]
If Tehran (the royal capital of Iran) was captured by the Russian army, Iran would become one of the permanent colonies of Tsarist Russia. Due to popular resistance in the Battle of Robat Karim (although Iranian people and Heydar Latifiyan - the commander - were killed and Russia won), time was provided to separate the capital of the state and the capital of the monarchy, and thus Iran was saved from the danger of complete collapse. Although the result of this battle was the victory of the Russians, but in the larger goal, Iran was preserved during the First World War and never became a colony of any country.[93]
Fall of the dynasty
Ahmad Shah Qajar was born 21 January 1898 in Tabriz, and succeeded to the throne at age 11. However, the occupation of Persia during World War I by Russian, British, and Ottoman troops was a blow from which Ahmad Shah never effectively recovered.
In February 1921, Reza Khan, commander of the Persian Cossack Brigade, staged a coup d'état, becoming the effective ruler of Iran. In 1923, Ahmad Shah went into exile in Europe. Reza Khan induced the Majles to depose Ahmad Shah in October 1925 and to exclude the Qajar dynasty permanently. Reza Khan was subsequently proclaimed monarch as Reza Shah Pahlavi, reigning from 1925 to 1941.[95][96]
Ahmad Shah died on February 21, 1930, in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France.[97]
Government and administration
Iran was divided into five large provinces and a large number of smaller ones at the beginning of Fath Ali Shah's reign, about 20 provinces in 1847, 39 in 1886, but 18 in 1906.[98] In 1868, most province governors were Qajar princes.[99]
Military
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The Qajar military was one of the dynasty's largest conventional sources of legitimacy, albeit was increasingly influenced by foreign powers over the course of the dynasty.[20][79]
Irregular forces, such as tribal cavalry, were a major element until the late nineteenth century, and irregular forces long remained a significant part of the Qajar army.[100]
At the time of Agha Mohammad Khan's death in 1797, his military was at its apex and counted 60,000 men, consisting of 50,000 tribal cavalry (savar) and 10,000 infantry (tofangchi) recruited from the sedentary population.[101] The army of his nephew and successor Fath-Ali Shah was much larger and from 1805 onwards incorporated European-trained units.[102] According to the French general Gardane, who was stationed in Iran, the army under Fath-Ali Shah numbered 180,000 men in 1808, thus far surpassing the army of Agha Mohammad Khan in size.[102] The modern historian Maziar Behrooz explains that there are other estimates which roughly match Gardane's estimate, however, Gardane was the first to complete a full outline of the Qajar army as he and his men were tasked with training the Qajar army.[102] According to Gardane's report of Fath-Ali Shah's contemporaneous army, some 144,000 were tribal cavalry, 40,000 were infantry (which included those trained on European lines), whilst 2,500 were part of the artillery units (which included the zamburakchis). Some half of the total amount of cavalrymen, that is 70,000–75,000, were so-called rekabi.[102] This meant that they received their salaries from the shah's personal funds during periods of supposed mobilization.[102] All others were so-called velayati, that is, they were paid for and were under the command of provincial Iranian rulers and governors. They were mobilized to join the royal army when the call required to do so.[102] Also, as was custom, tribes were supposed to provide troops for the army depending on their size. Thus, larger tribes were supposed to provide larger numbers, whilst smaller tribes provided smaller numbers.[102] After receiving payment, the central government expected military men to (for the greater part) to pay for their own supplies.[102]
During the era of wars with Russia, with crown prince Abbas Mirza's command of the army of the Azerbaijan Province, his segment of the army was the main force that defended Iran against the Russian invaders. Hence, the quality and organization of his units were superior to that of the rest of the Iranian army. Soldiers of Abbas Mirza's units were furnished from the villages of Azerbaijan and according to quotas in line with the rent each village was responsible for. Abbas Mirza provided for the payment of his troops' outfits and armaments. James Justinian Morier estimated the force under Abbas Mirza's command at 40,000 men, consisting of 22,000 cavalry, 12,000 infantry which included an artillery force, as well as 6,000 Nezam infantry.
Russia established the Persian Cossack Brigade in 1879, a force which was led by Russian officers and served as a vehicle for Russian influence in Iran.[103][104]
By the 1910s, the Qajar Iran was decentralised to the extent that foreign powers sought to bolster the central authority of the Qajars by providing military aid. It was viewed as a process of defensive modernisation; however, this also led to internal colonisation.[105]
The Iranian Gendarmerie was founded in 1911 with the assistance of Sweden.[106][105] The involvement of a neutral country was seen to avoid "Great Game" rivalry between Russia and Britain, as well as avoid siding with any particular alliance (in the prelude to World War I). Iranian administrators thought the reforms could strengthen the country against foreign influences. The Swedish-influenced police had some success in building up Persian police in centralizing the country.[106] After 1915, Russia and Britain demanded the recall of the Swedish advisers. Some Swedish officers left, while others sided with the Germans and Ottomans in their intervention in Persia. The remainder of the Gendarmerie was named amniya after a patrol unit that existed in the early Qajar dynasty. [106]
The number of Russian officers in the Cossack Brigade would increase over time. Britain also sent sepoys to reinforce the Brigade. After the start of the Russian Revolution, many tsarist supporters remained in Iran as members of the Cossack Brigade rather than fighting for or against the Soviet Union.[104]
The British formed the South Persia Rifles in 1916, which was initially separate from the Persian army until 1921.[107]
In 1921, the Russian-officered Persian Cossack Brigade was merged with the gendarmerie and other forces, and would become supported by the British.[108]
At the end of the Qajar dynasty in 1925, Reza Shah's Pahlavi army would include members of the gendarmerie, Cossacks, and former members of the South Persia Rifles.[104]
Art
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Qajar_dynasty_era%2C_painting_of_a_seated_woman.jpg/170px-Qajar_dynasty_era%2C_painting_of_a_seated_woman.jpg)
Demographics
In the late 18th century, during the final period of Shah Agha Mohammad Khan's reign, Iran (including the Khanates of the Caucasus) numbered some five to six million inhabitants.[109]
In 1800, three years into Fath-Ali Shah's reign, Iran numbered an estimated six million people.[110] A few years later, in 1812, the population numbered an estimated nine million. At the time, the country numbered some 70,000 Jews, 170,000 Armenian Christians, and 20,000 Zoroastrians.[110] The city of Shiraz in the south numbered circa 50,000, while Isfahan was the largest city at the time, with a population of about 200,000 inhabitants.[110] More to the north, Tehran, which became the capital of Iran under the Qajars in 1786 under Agha Mohammad Khan, resembled more-so a garrison rather than a town prior to becoming the capital.[111] At the time, as a developing city, it held some 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, but only when the Iranian royal court was in residence.[111] During summer, the royal court moved to a cooler area of pasture such as at Soltaniyeh, near Khamseh (i.e. Zanjan), or at Ujan near Tabriz in the Azerbaijan Province.[112] Other Tehrani residents moved to Shemiran in Tehran's north during summer, which was located at a higher altitude and thus had a more cool climate. These seasonal movements used to reduce Tehran's population to a few thousand seasonally.[112]
In Iran's east, in Mashhad, holding the Imam Reza Shrine and being Iran's former capital during the Afsharid era, held a population of less than 20,000 by 1800.[112] Tabriz, the largest city of the Azerbaijan Province, as well as the seat of the Qajar vali ahd ("crown prince"), used to be a prosperous city, but the 1780 earthquake had devastated the city and reversed its fortunes.[112] In 1809, the population of Tabriz was estimated at 50,000 including 200 Armenian families who lived in their own quarter.[112] The Azerbaijan province's total population, as per a 1806 estimate, was somewhere between 500,000 and 550,000 souls. The towns of Khoy and Marand, which at the time were no more than an amalgam of villages, were estimated to hold 25,000 and 10,000 inhabitants respectively.[112]
In Iran's domains in the Caucasus, the town of Nakhchivan (Nakhjavan) held a total population of some 5,000 in the year 1807, whereas the total population of the Erivan Khanate was some 100,000 in 1811.[112] However, the latter figure does not account for the Kurdish tribes that had migrated into the province. A Russian estimate asserted that the Pambak region of the northern part of the Erivan Khanate, which had been occupied by the Russians after 1804, held a total population of 2,832, consisting of 1,529 Muslims and 1,303 Christian Armenians.[112] According to the Russian demographic survey of 1823 of the Karabakh Khanate, its largest city, Shusha, held 371 households, who were divided in four quarters or parishes (mahaleh). The province itself consisted of twenty-one districts, in which nine large domains were located that belonged to Muslims and Armenians, twenty-one Armenian villages, ninety Muslim villages (both settled and nomadic), with Armenians constituting an estimated minority.[112] In the Ganja Khanate, the city of Ganja held 10,425 inhabitants in 1804 at the time of the Russian conquest and occupation.[112]
In 1868, Jews were the most significant minority in Tehran, numbering 1,578 people.[113] By 1884 this figure had risen to 5,571.[113]
See also
- Qajar (tribe)
- Qajar dynasty
- Russo-Iranian War 1804–1813
- Ottoman–Iranian War 1821–1823
- Russo-Iranian War 1826–1828
- Anglo-Iranian War 1856–1857
- Treaty of Paris 1857
- Treaty of Gulistan
- Treaty of Turkmanchay
- Iranian famine of 1870–1872
- Iranian famine of 1917–1919
- Amir Kabir
- Dar ul-Funun
- Constitutionalization attempts in Iran
- Iranian Constitutional Revolution
- 1st Iranian Majlis
- Morteza Gholi Khan Hedayat (1st Speaker of the Majlis of Iran)
- Mirza Nasrullah Khan (1st Prime Minister of Iran)
- Iranian Constitution of 1906
- Treaty of Saint Petersburg 1907
- 1908 bombardment of the Majlis
- Minor Tyranny
- Occupation of Iran In World War I
- British occupation of Bushehr
- Iranian coup d'état 1921
Notes
References
- ^ Homa Katouzian, State and Society in Iran: The Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis, published by I. B. Tauris, 2006. pg 327: "In post-Islamic times, the mother-tongue of Iran's rulers was often Turkic, but Persian was almost invariably the cultural and administrative language."
- ^ Homa Katouzian, Iranian history and politics, published by Routledge, 2003. pg 128: "Indeed, since the formation of the Ghaznavids state in the tenth century until the fall of Qajars at the beginning of the twentieth century, most parts of the Iranian cultural regions were ruled by Turkic-speaking dynasties most of the time. At the same time, the official language was Persian, the court literature was in Persian, and most of the chancellors, ministers, and mandarins were Persian speakers of the highest learning and ability."
- ^ "Ardabil Becomes a Province: Center-Periphery Relations in Iran", H. E. Chehabi, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2 (May, 1997), 235; "Azeri Turkish was widely spoken at the two courts in addition to Persian, and Mozaffareddin Shah (r. 1896–1907) spoke Persian with an Azeri Turkish accent."
- ^ "AZERBAIJAN x. Azeri Turkish Literature". Encyclopædia Iranica. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2013.; "In the 19th century under the Qajars, when Turkish was used at court once again, literary activity was intensified."
- ^ Donzel, Emeri "van" (1994). Islamic Desk Reference. ISBN 90-04-09738-4. p. 285-286
- ^ علیاصغر شمیم، ایران در دوره سلطنت قاجار، تهران: انتشارات علمی، ۱۳۷۱، ص ۲۸۷
- ^ "Early Qajar Persia appeared to ..."
- ^ Charles Melville, ed. (27 January 2012). Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature. Bloomsbury. pp. 358, 361. ISBN 9780857723598.
- ^ a b Abbas Amanat, The Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896, I. B. Tauris, pp 2–3
- ^ a b c d e Cyrus Ghani. Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power, I. B. Tauris, 2000, ISBN 1-86064-629-8, p. 1
- ^ a b William Bayne Fisher. Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 344, ISBN 0-521-20094-6
- ^ a b Dr Parviz Kambin, A History of the Iranian Plateau: Rise and Fall of an Empire, Universe, 2011, p.36, online edition.
- ^ Abbas Amanat, The Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896, I. B. Tauris, pp 2–3; "In the 126 years between the fall of the Safavid state in 1722 and the accession of Nasir al-Din Shah, the Qajars evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Iran into a Persian dynasty."
- ^ Choueiri, Youssef M., A companion to the history of the Middle East, (Blackwell Ltd., 2005), 231,516.
- ^ H. Scheel; Jaschke, Gerhard; H. Braun; Spuler, Bertold; T. Koszinowski; Bagley, Frank (1981). Muslim World. Brill Archive. pp. 65, 370. ISBN 978-90-04-06196-5. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
- ^ a b c Michael Axworthy. Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day, Penguin UK, 6 November 2008. ISBN 0141903414
- ^ a b c d e Fisher et al. 1991, p. 330.
- ^ a b c d Timothy C. Dowling. Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond, pp 728–730 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 ISBN 1598849484
- ^ Amanat 2017, p. 177.
- ^ a b c d e f g Deutschmann, Moritz (2013). ""All Rulers are Brothers": Russian Relations with the Iranian Monarchy in the Nineteenth Century". Iranian Studies. 46 (3): 401–413. doi:10.1080/00210862.2012.759334. ISSN 0021-0862. JSTOR 24482848. S2CID 143785614.
- ^ a b Andreeva, Elena (2007). Russia and Iran in the great game : travelogues and Orientalism. London: Routledge. pp. 20, 63–76. ISBN 978-0-203-96220-6. OCLC 166422396.
- ^ "ANGLO-RUSSIAN CONVENTION OF 1907". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
- ^ a b Afary, Janet (1996). The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911: Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy, & the Origins of Feminism. Columbia University Press. pp. 330–338. ISBN 978-0-231-10351-0.
- ^ "Genealogy and History of Qajar (Kadjar) Rulers and Heads of the Imperial Kadjar House". Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2019.
- ^ IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period, Ehsan Yarshater, Encyclopædia Iranica, (29 March 2012).[1]
The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelbāš tribes that supported the Safavids.
- ^ K. M. Röhrborn. Provinzen und Zentralgewalt Persiens im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1966, p. 4
- ^ Encyclopedia Iranica. Ganja. Online Edition Archived 11 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Keddie, Nikki R. (1971). "The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change 1800–1969: An Overview". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 2 (1): 3–20 [p. 4]. doi:10.1017/S0020743800000842. S2CID 163247729.
- ^ Irons, William (1975). The Yomut Turkmen: A Study of Social Organization among a Central Asian Turkic-Speaking Population. University of Michigan Press. p. 8.
For example, the Turkmen of Iran were instrumental in the establishment of Kajar dynasty in Iran in the late eighteenth century, and opponents of the Iranian constitution sought Turkmen support in the revolution of 1909.
- ^ Lapidus, Ira Marvin (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. p. 469. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
- ^ Suny 1994, p. 55.
- ^ Hitchins 1998, pp. 541–542.
- ^ a b c d e f g Fisher et al. 1991, p. 328.
- ^ Perry 1991, p. 96.
- ^ a b Fisher et al. 1991, p. 327.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2011, p. 327.
- ^ a b Mikaberidze 2011, p. 409.
- ^ a b c d Donald Rayfield. Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia Reaktion Books, 15 February. 2013 ISBN 1780230702 p 255
- ^ a b c Lang, David Marshall (1962), A Modern History of Georgia, p. 38. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
- ^ a b Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 59. Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-20915-3
- ^ P.Sykes, A history of Persia, 3rd edition, Barnes and Noble 1969, Vol. 2, p. 293
- ^ Malcolm, Sir John (1829), The History of Persia from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, pp. 189–191. London: John Murray.
- ^ Fisher, William Bayne (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 128–129.
(...) Agha Muhammad Khan remained nine days in the vicinity of Tiflis. His victory proclaimed the restoration of Iranian military power in the region formerly under Safavid domination.
- ^ a b c Fisher et al. 1991, p. 329.
- ^ Alekseĭ I. Miller. Imperial Rule Central European University Press, 2004 ISBN 9639241989 p 204
- ^ Gvosdev (2000), p. 86
- ^ Lang (1957), p. 249
- ^ Dowling 2014, p. 728.
- ^ Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2010). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 1035. ISBN 978-1851096725.
January 1804. (...) Russo-Persian War. The Russian invasion of Persia. (...) In January 1804 Russian forces under General Paul Tsitsianov (Sisianoff) invade Persia and storm the citadel of Ganjeh, beginning the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813).
- ^ Fisher, William Bayne (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. pp. 145–146.
Even when rulers on the plateau lacked the means to effect suzerainty beyond the Aras, the neighboring Khanates were still regarded as Iranian dependencies. Naturally, it was those Khanates located closes to the province of Azarbaijan which most frequently experienced attempts to re-impose Iranian suzerainty: the Khanates of Erivan, Nakhchivan and Qarabagh across the Aras, and the cis-Aras Khanate of Talish, with its administrative headquarters located at Lankaran and therefore very vulnerable to pressure, either from the direction of Tabriz or Rasht. Beyond the Khanate of Qarabagh, the Khan of Ganja and the Vali of Gurjistan (ruler of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of south-east Georgia), although less accessible for purposes of coercion, were also regarded as the Shah's vassals, as were the Khans of Shakki and Shirvan, north of the Kura river. The contacts between Iran and the Khanates of Baku and Qubba, however, were more tenuous and consisted mainly of maritime commercial links with Anzali and Rasht. The effectiveness of these somewhat haphazard assertions of suzerainty depended on the ability of a particular Shah to make his will felt, and the determination of the local khans to evade obligations they regarded as onerous.
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Perhaps the most important legacy of Yermolov was his intention from early on to prepare the ground for the conquest of the remaining khanates under Iranian rule and to make the River Aras the new border. (...) Another provocative action by Yermolov was the Russian occupation of the northern shore of Lake Gokcha (Sivan) in the Khanate of Iravan in 1825. A clear violation of Golestan, this action was the most significant provocation by the Russian side. The Lake Gokcha occupation clearly showed that it was Russia and not Iran which initiated hostilities and breached Golestan, and that Iran was left with no choice but to come up with a proper response.
- ^ Dowling, Timothy C., ed. (2015). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. p. 729. ISBN 978-1598849486.
In May 1826, Russia, therefore, occupied Mirak, in the Erivan khanate, in violation of the Treaty of Gulistan.
- ^ Swietochowski, Tadeusz (1995). Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. Columbia University Press. pp. 69, 133. ISBN 978-0-231-07068-3.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Andreeva, Elena (2010). Russia and Iran in the great game: travelogues and orientalism (reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-415-78153-4.
- ^ Çiçek, Kemal, Kuran, Ercüment (2000). The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation. University of Michigan. ISBN 978-975-6782-18-7.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ernest Meyer, Karl, Blair Brysac, Shareen (2006). Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia. Basic Books. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-465-04576-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[permanent dead link] - ^ "However the result of the Treaty of Turkmenchay was a tragedy for the Azerbaijani people. It demarcated a borderline through their territory along the Araxes river, a border that still today divides the Azerbaijani people." in Svante Cornell, "Small nations and great powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus", Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Michael P. Croissant, "The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: causes and implications", Praeger/Greenwood,1998 – Page 67: The historical homeland of the Talysh was divided between Russia and Iran in 1813.
- ^ a b "Caucasus Survey". Archived from the original on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
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- ^ (in Russian) A. S. Griboyedov. "Записка о переселеніи армянъ изъ Персіи въ наши области" Archived 13 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Фундаментальная Электронная Библиотека
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Further reading
- Behrooz, Maziar (2013). "Revisiting the Second Russo-Iranian War (1826–28): Causes and Perceptions". Iranian Studies. 46 (3): 359–381. doi:10.1080/00210862.2012.758502. S2CID 143736977.
- Bournoutian, George (2020). From the Kur to the Aras: A Military History of Russia's Move into the South Caucasus and the First Russo-Iranian War, 1801–1813. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-44516-1.
- Deutschmann, Moritz (2013). ""All Rulers are Brothers": Russian Relations with the Iranian Monarchy in the Nineteenth Century". Iranian Studies. 46 (3): 383–413. doi:10.1080/00210862.2012.759334. S2CID 143785614.
- Grobien, Philip Henning (2021). "Iran and imperial nationalism in 1919". Middle Eastern Studies. 57 (2): 292–309. doi:10.1080/00263206.2020.1853535. S2CID 230604129.
- Sluglett, Peter (2014). "The Waning of Empires: The British, the Ottomans and the Russians in the Caucasus and North Iran, 1917–1921". Middle East Critique. 23 (2): 189–208. doi:10.1080/19436149.2014.905084. S2CID 143816605.