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{{Short description|Blue-green algal genus (cyanobacteria) used in food}} |
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{{Taxobox |
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[[File:Spirulina tablets.jpg|thumb|right|Spirulina tablets]] |
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| color = lightgrey |
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'''Spirulina''' is a [[biomass]] of [[cyanobacteria]] (blue-green algae) that can be consumed by humans and animals. The three species are '' [[Arthrospira|Arthrospira platensis]]'', ''A. fusiformis'', and ''A. maxima''. |
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| name = ''Spirulina'' |
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| regnum = [[Bacteria]] |
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| divisio = [[Cyanobacteria]] |
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| classis = [[Cyanophyceae]] |
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| ordo = [[Oscillatoriales]] |
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| genus = '''''Spirulina''''' |
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| subdivision_ranks = Species |
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| subdivision = |
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''Spirulina corakiana ''<br> |
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''Spirulina crispum''<br> |
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''Spirulina labyrinthiformis''<br> |
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''Spirulina laxa''<br> |
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''Spirulina laxissima''<br> |
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''Spirulina major''<br> |
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''Spirulina meneghiniana''<br> |
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''Spirulina nordstedtii''<br> |
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''Spirulina princeps''<br> |
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''Spirulina subsalsa''<br> |
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''Spirulina subtilissima''<br> |
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''Spirulina platensis''<br> |
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''Spirulina tenerrima''<br> |
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''Spirulina weissii'' |
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}} |
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Cultivated worldwide, ''[[Arthrospira]]'' is used as a [[dietary supplement]] or [[whole food]].<ref name="medline-plus">{{cite web |publisher=MedlinePlus, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health |url= https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/923.html |title= Blue-green algae |date= 3 August 2021 |access-date= 27 June 2023}}</ref> It is also used as a [[fodder|feed]] supplement in the [[aquaculture]], [[aquarium]], and [[poultry]] industries.<ref name="vonshak">Vonshak, A. (ed.). ''Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology.'' London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.{{ISBN?}}</ref> |
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'''''Spirulina''''' is a [[genus]] of [[filament]]ous [[cyanobacteria]] (commonly called blue-green algae), with a [[helix|coil]]-like shape. [[Integrated Taxonomic Information System|ITIS]] recognises 13 [[species]]. |
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== Etymology and ecology == |
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'''Spirulina''' is also the commercial name for the species '''''[[Arthrospira]] platensis''''' (previously known as '''''Spirulina platensis'''''), which is cultivated around the world as a food source. It is a very rich source of [[nutrition]]. In fact, it was a staple of [[Aztec]] cuisine. The genus is also responsible for the [[flamingo]]'s pink plumage. |
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{{Main|Arthrospira}} |
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[[File:Spira400xwetcr.jpg|upright=1.4|thumbnail|Spirulina powder at 400×, unstained wet mount]] |
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The species ''A. maxima'' and ''A. platensis'' were once classified in the genus [[Spirulina (genus)|''Spirulina'']]. The common name, spirulina, refers to the dried biomass of ''A. platensis'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gershwin |first1=M. E. |last2=Belay |first2=A. |date=2007|title=Spirulina in human nutrition and health | publisher= CRC Press, USA}}</ref> which belongs to [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] bacteria that cover the groups [[Cyanobacteria]] and [[Prochlorophyta]]. Scientifically, a distinction exists between spirulina and the genus ''Arthrospira''. Species of ''Arthrospira'' have been isolated from alkaline brackish and saline waters in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus ''Arthrospira'', ''A. platensis'' is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia. ''A. maxima'' is believed to be found in California and Mexico.<ref name=":0"/> The term ''spirulina'' remains in use for historical reasons.<ref name="vonshak"/> |
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''Arthrospira'' species are free-floating, filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by [[Cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]], multicellular [[trichome]]s in an open left-handed [[helix]]. They occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high [[pH]] and high concentrations of [[carbonate]] and [[bicarbonate]].<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review" /> ''A. platensis'' occurs in Africa, Asia, and South America, whereas ''A. maxima'' is confined to Central America.<ref name="vonshak"/> Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel [[raceway pond]]s, with paddle wheels used to agitate the water.<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review" /> |
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It is currently popular as a health food in the U.S. and Europe, often taken as a [[dietary supplement]] in the form of powder or tablet. |
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Spirulina thrives at a pH around 8.5 and above and a temperature around {{convert|30|C|F}}. They are [[autotrophic]], meaning that they are able to make their own food, and do not need a living energy or organic carbon source. A nutrient feed for [[Algaculture|growing it]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chang | first1 = Yuanyuan | display-authors = etal | year = 2013 | title = Cultivation of Spirulina platensis for biomass production and nutrient removal from synthetic human urine | journal = Applied Energy | volume = 102 | pages = 427–431 | doi = 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.07.024 | bibcode = 2013ApEn..102..427C }}</ref> is: |
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[[Vegetarian]]s and [[vegan]]s should not rely on spirulina (among certain other foods) as a source of [[vitamin B12]]. See the B12 article for more information. |
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* [[Baking soda]] {{convert|16|g/L|g/gal|abbr=on}} |
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==Nutritional facts== |
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* [[Potassium nitrate]] {{convert|2|g/L|g/gal|abbr=on}} |
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* [[Sea salt]]- {{convert|1|g/L|g/gal|abbr=on}} |
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* [[Monopotassium phosphate|Potassium phosphate]] {{convert|0.1|g/L|g/gal|abbr=on}} |
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* [[Iron(II) sulfate|Iron sulphate]] {{convert|0.0378|g/L|g/gal|abbr=on}} |
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{{nutritionalvalue | name=Spirulina(dried)| water =4.68 g| kJ =1213| protein =57.47 g| fat =7.72 g| carbs =23.9 g| fiber =3.6 g| sugars =3.1 g| calcium_mg =120| iron_mg =28.5| magnesium_mg =195| phosphorus_mg =118| potassium_mg =1363| sodium_mg =1048| zinc_mg =2| manganese_mg =1.9| selenium_μg =7.2| vitC_mg =10.1| thiamin_mg =2.38| riboflavin_mg =3.67| niacin_mg =12.82| pantothenic_mg =3.48| vitB6_mg=0.364| folate_ug =94| choline_mg =66| vitB12_ug =0| vitA_IU =570| betacarotene_ug =| lutein_ug =| vitE_mg =5| vitD_iu =0| vitK_ug =25.5| satfat =2.65 g| monofat =0.675 g| polyfat =2.08 g| tryptophan =0.929 g| threonine =2.97 g| isoleucine =3.209 g| leucine =4.947 g| lysine =3.025 g| methionine =1.149 g| cystine =0.662 g| phenylalanine =2.777 g| tyrosine =2.584 g| valine =3.512 g| arginine =4.147 g| histidine =1.085 g| alanine =4.515 g| aspartic acid =5.793 g| glutamic acid =8.386 g| glycine =3.099 g| proline =2.382 g| serine =2.998 g| right=1 | source_usda=1|| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170495/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central page]}} |
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==Historical use== |
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55 - 70 % [[protein]]. |
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Spirulina was a food source for the [[Aztecs]] and other [[Mesoamericans]] until the 16th century; the harvest from [[Lake Texcoco]] in Mexico and subsequent sale as cakes were described by one of [[Hernán Cortés|Cortés]]'s soldiers.<ref>Diaz Del Castillo, B. ''The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517–1521.'' London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.</ref><ref name="OsborneKahn2005">{{cite book |last1=Osborne |first1=Ken |last2=Kahn |first2=Charles N. |title=World History: Societies of the Past |publisher=Portage & Main Press |location=Winnipeg |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55379-045-7 }}</ref> The Aztecs called it ''tecuitlatl''.<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review">{{cite web|title=A Review on Culture, Production and Use of Spirulina as Food dor Humans and Feeds for Domestic Animals and Fish|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0424e/i0424e00.pdf|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations|access-date=November 20, 2011|last1=Habib |first1=M. Ahsan B. |last2=Parvin |first2=Mashuda |last3=Huntington |first3=Tim C. |last4= Hasan |first4=Mohammad R. |year=2008}}</ref> |
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Spirulina was found in abundance at Lake Texcoco by French researchers in the 1960s, but no reference to its use by the Aztecs as a daily food source was made after the 16th century, probably because of the draining of the surrounding lakes for agriculture and urban development.<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review" /> The topic of ''tecuitlatl'', which was discovered in 1520, was not mentioned again until 1940, when the Belgian phycologist Pierre Dangeard mentioned a cake called ''dihe'' consumed by the Kanembu tribe, who harvest it from [[Lake Chad]] in the African nation of [[Chad]]. Dangeard studied the ''dihe'' samples and found it to be a dried puree of the spring form of the blue-green algae from the lake. The ''dihe'' is used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Abdulqader | first1 = G. | last2 = Barsanti | first2 = L. | last3 = Tredici | first3 = M. | year = 2000 | title = Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu | journal = Journal of Applied Phycology | volume = 12 | issue = 3/5| pages = 493–498 | doi=10.1023/A:1008177925799| s2cid = 33434695 }}</ref> |
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Contains: [[vitamin]] A, B1 (thiamine), B2 ([[riboflavin]]), B3 ([[niacin]]), B6 ([[pyridoxine]]), B12 ([[cobalamin]]), [[vitamin C]], [[vitamin D]], [[vitamin E]], [[folate]], [[vitamin K]], [[biotin]], [[pantothenic acid]], [[beta carotene]] (source of vitamin A), [[inositol]]. |
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During 1964 and 1965, the botanist Jean Leonard confirmed that ''dihe'' is made up of spirulina, and later studied a bloom of algae in a [[sodium hydroxide]] production facility. As a result, the first systematic and detailed study of the growth requirements and physiology of spirulina was performed as a basis for establishing large-scale production in the 1970s.<ref name="vonshak" /><ref name=":0" /> |
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[[Mineral]]s: [[calcium]], [[manganese]], [[iron]], [[chromium]], [[phosphorus]], [[molybdenum]], [[iodine]], [[chloride]], [[magnesium]], [[sodium]], [[zinc]], [[potassium]], [[selenium]], [[germanium]], [[copper]], [[boron]]. |
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== Food and nutrition == |
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Contains: [[phycocyanin]], [[chlorophyll]], [[carotenoids]]. |
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Spirulina is being investigated to address [[food security]] and [[malnutrition]], and as dietary support in long-term [[space flight]] or [[Mars]] missions.<ref name="riley">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/sep/12/spirulina-health-food-panacea-malnutrition|title=Spirulina: a luxury health food and a panacea for malnutrition|author=Riley, Tess|publisher=The Guardian, London, UK|date=12 September 2014|access-date=22 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Exploration/Ready_for_dinner_on_Mars|title=Ready for dinner on Mars?|publisher=European Space Agency|date=13 June 2005|access-date=22 May 2017}}</ref> Its advantage for food security is that it needs less land and water than [[livestock]] to produce protein and energy.<ref name=riley/> |
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Contains: [[myxoxanthophyll]], [[zeaxanthin]], [[cryptoxanthin]], [[echinenone]] and other [[xanthophyll]]s. |
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Dried spirulina contains 5% water, 24% [[carbohydrate]]s, 8% [[fat]], and about 60% (51–71%) [[protein]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Khan|first1=Z|last2=Bhadouria|first2=P|last3=Bisen |first3=P. S.|title=Nutritional and therapeutic potential of Spirulina|journal=Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology|date=October 2005|volume=6|issue=5|pages=373–379|pmid=16248810|doi=10.2174/138920105774370607|s2cid=3691513}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Campanella|first1=L.|last2=Russo|first2=M. V.|last3=Avino|first3=P.|title=Free and total amino acid composition in blue-green algae|journal=Annali di Chimica|date=April 2002|volume=92|issue=4|pages=343–352|pmid=12073880}}</ref> |
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[[gamma linolenic acid]], [[glycolipid]]s, [[sulfolipid]]s, [[polysaccharides]]. |
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As seen in the table of nutritional value, provided in its typical supplement form as a dried powder, a 100-g amount of spirulina supplies {{convert|290|kcal|kJ|lk=in}} and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of numerous [[essential nutrient]]s, particularly [[protein]], [[B vitamins]] ([[thiamin]], [[riboflavin]], and [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], providing 207%, 306%, and 85% DV, respectively), and [[dietary mineral]]s, such as [[iron]] (219% DV) and [[manganese]] (90% DV). The lipid content of spirulina is 8% by weight providing the [[fatty acid]]s, [[gamma-linolenic acid]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Colla|first1=L. M. |last2=Bertolin|first2=T. E.|last3=Costa|first3=J. A.|title=Fatty acids profile of Spirulina platensis grown under different temperatures and nitrogen concentrations|journal=Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C|date=2003|volume=59|issue=1–2|pages=55–59|pmid=15018053|doi=10.1515/znc-2004-1-212|s2cid=10084035|url=http://repositorio.furg.br/handle/1/4524|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Golmakani|first1=Mohammad-Taghi|last2=Rezaei|first2=Karamatollah|last3=Mazidi|first3=Sara|last4=Razavi|first4=Seyyed Hadi|title=γ-Linolenic acid production by Arthrospira platensis using different carbon sources|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology|date=March 2012|volume=114|issue=3|pages=306–314|doi=10.1002/ejlt.201100264}}</ref> [[linoleic acid]], [[stearidonic acid]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jubie|first1=S.|last2=Ramesh|first2=P. N.|last3=Dhanabal|first3=P.|last4=Kalirajan|first4=R.|last5=Muruganantham|first5=N.|last6=Antony|first6=A. S.|title=Synthesis, antidepressant and antimicrobial activities of some novel stearic acid analogues|journal=European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|date=August 2012|volume=54|pages=931–935|pmid=22770606|doi=10.1016/j.ejmech.2012.06.025}}</ref> [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA), [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA), and [[arachidonic acid]].<ref name="biomass">{{cite journal |last1= Tokusoglu |first1=O. |last2=Unal |first2=M. K. |title= Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana |journal= Journal of Food Science |volume= 68 |issue= 4 |page= 2003 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x|year=2003 }}</ref> In contrast to those 2003 estimates (of DHA and EPA each at 2 to 3% of total fatty acids), 2015 research indicated that spirulina products "contained no detectable omega-3 fatty acids" (less than 0.1%, including DHA and EPA).<ref>{{cite journal | journal=PLOS ONE |date=2015 |volume=10 | issue=2 |pages= e0118985 | doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0118985 |pmid=25723496 | pmc = 4344213 | title= Nutritional Evaluation of Australian Microalgae as Potential Human Health Supplements | first1=Megan |last1=Kent |first2=Heather M. |last2=Welladsen |first3=Arnold |last3=Mangott | first4=Yan |last4=Li|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1018985K |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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[[Amino acid]]s: [[isoleucine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[leucine]], [[threonine]], [[lysine]], [[tryptophan]], [[methionine]], [[valine]], [[alanine]], [[glycine]], [[arginine]], [[histidine]], [[aspartic acid]], [[proline]], [[cystine]], [[serine]], [[glutamic acid]], [[tyrosine]]. |
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===Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>=== |
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==Reference== |
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Spirulina contains no [[Vitamin B12|vitamin B<sub>12</sub>]] naturally, and spirulina supplements are not considered to be a reliable source of vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, as they contain predominantly pseudovitamin B<sub>12</sub> (Coα-[α-(7-adenyl)]-Coβ-cyanocobamide),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watanabe |first1=Fumio |last2=Katsura |first2=Hiromi |last3=Takenaka |first3=Shigeo |last4=Fujita |first4=Tomoyuki |last5=Abe |first5=Katsuo |last6=Tamura |first6=Yoshiyuki |last7=Nakatsuka |first7=Toshiyuki |last8=Nakano |first8=Yoshihisa |title=Pseudovitamin B12 Is the Predominant Cobamide of an Algal Health Food, Spirulina Tablets |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=November 1999 |volume=47 |issue=11 |pages=4736–4741 |doi=10.1021/jf990541b |pmid=10552882}}</ref> which is biologically inactive in humans.<ref name="watanabe-review"/><ref name=ADA2009/> In a 2009 position paper on [[vegetarian]] diets, the [[American Dietetic Association]] stated that spirulina is not a reliable source of active vitamin B<sub>12</sub>.<ref name="ADA2009">{{cite journal|pmid=19562864|year=2009|last1=Craig|first1=W. J.|title=Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets|journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume=109|issue=7|pages=1266–1282|last2=Mangels|first2=A. R.|url=http://jandonline.org/article/S0002-8223(09)00700-7/fulltext|doi=10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027|s2cid=7906168 }}</ref> The medical literature similarly advises that spirulina is unsuitable as a source of B<sub>12</sub>.<ref name="watanabe-review">{{cite journal |last= Watanabe |first=F |title= Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability |year= 2007 |journal= Experimental Biology and Medicine |volume= 232 |issue= 10 |pages= 1266–1274 |doi= 10.3181/0703-MR-67 |pmid= 17959839 |s2cid=14732788 |quote= Most of the edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) used for human supplements predominantly contain pseudovitamin B(12), which is inactive in humans. The edible cyanobacteria are not suitable for use as vitamin B(12) sources, especially in vegans.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Watanabe |first1=F. |last2=Katsura |first2=H. |last3=Takenaka |first3=S. |last4=Fujita |first4=T. |last5=Abe |first5=K. |last6=Tamura |first6=Y. |last7=Nakatsuka |first7=T. |last8=Nakano |first8=Y. |display-authors=3 |title= Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets. |year= 1999 |journal= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume= 47 |issue= 11 |pages= 4736–4741 |pmid= 10552882 |doi= 10.1021/jf990541b |quote= The results presented here strongly suggest that spirulina tablet algal health food is not suitable for use as a B<sub>12</sub> source, especially in vegetarians.}}</ref> |
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* [http://www.spirulina.com/ Spirulina Homepage] |
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* [http://www.javeriana.edu.co/universitas_scientiarum/vol8n1/J_bernal.htm A review of Spirulina (Arthrospira)] |
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=== Animals and aquaculture === |
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* [http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-B00001-01c20ia.html Full nutrition information for spirulina] |
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Various studies on spirulina as an alternative feed for animal and aquaculture have been done.<ref name=":0" /> Spirulina can be fed up to 10% for poultry <ref>{{cite journal |title=The nutritional value of dehydrated, blue-green algae (''spirulina plantensis'') for poultry |last1=Ross |first1=Ernest |last2=Dominy |first2=Warren |date=1990 |journal=Poultry Science |doi=10.3382/ps.0690794 |pmid=2114613 |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=794–800|doi-access=free }}</ref> and less than 4% for quail.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Comparison of freeze-dried and extruded ''Spirulina platensis'' as yolk pigmenting agents |last1=Ross |first1=E. |last2=Puapong |first2=D. P. |last3=Cepeda |first3=F. P. |last4=Patterson |first4=P. H. |date=1994 |journal=Poultry Science |doi=10.3382/ps.0731282 |pmid=7971672 |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=1282–1289|doi-access=free }}</ref> An increase in spirulina content up to {{cvt|40|g/kg}} for 16 days in 21-day-old broiler male chicks resulted in yellow and red coloration of flesh, possibly due to the accumulation of the yellow pigment [[zeaxanthin]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effects of dietary Spirulina on meat colour in muscle of broiler chickens |last1=Toyomizu |first1=M. |last2=Sato |first2=K. |last3=Taroda |first3=H. |last4=Kato |first4=T. |last5=Akiba |first5=Y. |date=2001 |journal=British Poultry Science |doi=10.1080/00071660120048447 |pmid=11421328 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=197–202|s2cid=23913553 }}</ref> Pigs<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.agrojournal.org/20/03-28.pdf |title=Effect of the addition of ''Spirulina platensis'' on the productivity and some blood parameters on growing pigs |last1=Nedeva |first1=R. |last2=Jordanova |first2=G. |last3=Kistanova |first3=E. |last4=Shumkov |first4=K. |last5=Georgiev |first5=B. |last6=Abadgieva |first6=D. |last7=Kacheva |first7=D. |last8=Shimkus |first8=A. |last9=Shimkine |first9=A. |date=2014 |journal=Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science |access-date=February 20, 2016}}</ref> and rabbits<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.livestockscience.com/article/S1871-1413%2808%2900134-0/abstract |title=Effects of diets with increasing levels of ''Spirulina platensis'' on the performance and apparent digestibility in growing rabbits. |last1=Peiretti |first1=P. G. |last2=Meineri |first2=G. |date=2008 |journal=Livestock Science |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=173–177 |doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2008.04.017 |access-date=February 20, 2016 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> can receive up to 10% of the feed and increase in the spirulina content in cattle resulted in increase in milk yield and weight.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |title=Feeding algae to fish |last1=Stanley |first1=Jon G. |last2=Jones |first2=Jack B. |date=1976 |journal=Aquaculture |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=219–223 |doi=10.1016/0044-8486(76)90140-X |bibcode=1976Aquac...7..219S }}</ref> Spirulina has been established<ref name=":0" /> as an alternative feedstock and immune booster for bigmouth buffalo,<ref name=":1" /> milk fish,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') fingerling production in freshwater ponds with the use of natural and artificial feeds |last1=Santiago |first1=Corazon B. |last2=Pantastico |first2=Julia B. |last3=Baldia |first3=Susana F. |last4=Reyes |first4=Ofelia S. |date=April 1989 |journal=Aquaculture |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1016/0044-8486(89)90215-9 |bibcode=1989Aquac..77..307S }}</ref> cultured striped jack,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Pigmentation of Cultured Striped Jack Reared on Diets Supplemented with the Blue-Green Alga Spirulina maxima |last1=Shigeru |first1=Okada |author2=Wen-Liang Liao |author3=Tetsu Mori |display-authors=etal |date=1991 |journal=Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi |volume=57 |issue=7 |pages=1403–1406 |doi=10.2331/suisan.57.1403 |doi-access=free }}</ref> carp,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ayyappan |first1=S. |chapter=Potential of Spirulina as a feed supplement for carp fry |editor1-last=Seshadri |editor1-first=C. V. |editor2-last=Jeeji Bai |editor2-first=N. |title=Spirulina Ecology, Taxonomy, Technology, and Applications |date=1992 |publisher<!--?-->=National Symposium, Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre |pages=171–172 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/19247/1/60_2_Arockiaraj.pdf |title=Effects of probiotics and spirulina on survival and growth of juvenile common carp (''Cyprinus carpio'') |last1=Ramakrishnan |first1=C. Muthu |last2=Haniffa |first2=M. A. |last3=Manohar |first3=M. |last4=Dhanaraj |first4=M. |last5=Arockiaraj |first5=A. Jesu |last6=Seetharaman |first6=S. |last7=Arunsingh |first7=S. V. |display-authors=3 |date=2008 |journal=The Israeli Journal of Aquaculture |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=128–133 |hdl=10524/19247 }}</ref> red sea bream,<ref>{{cite journal |title=The effect of ''Spirulina'' feeding on muscle protein deposition in red sea bream, ''Pagrus major'' |last1=Mustafa |first1=Md. G. |last2=Umino |first2=T. |last3=Nakagawa |first3=H. |date=1994 |journal=Journal of Applied Ichthyology |volume=10 |issue=2–3 |pages=141–145 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0426.1994.tb00153.x |doi-access=free |bibcode=1994JApIc..10..141M }}</ref> tilapia,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effect of the use of the microalga Spirulina maxima as fish meal replacement in diets for tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters), fry |last1=Olvera-Novoa |first1=M. A. |last2=Dominguez-Cen |first2=L. J. |last3=Olivera-Castillo |first3=L. |last4=Martínez-Palacios |first4=Carlos A. |date=1998 |journal=Aquaculture Research |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=709–715 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2109.1998.29100709.x }}</ref> catfish,<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |url=http://repository.library.du.ac.bd/xmlui/handle/123456789/494 |title=Evaluation of the effects of feed attractants (''Spirulina'' and ekangi) on growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of fingerlings of stinging catfish ''Heteropneustes fossilis'' |last=Ali |first=Md. Shawkat |date=2014 |access-date=2016-02-21 |archive-date=2020-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117111800/http://repository.library.du.ac.bd/xmlui/handle/123456789/494}}</ref> yellow tail,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Spirulina as a natural carotenoid source on growth, pigmentation and reproductive performance of yellow tail cichlid Pseudotropheus acei |last1=Güroy |first1=B |last2=Şahin |first2=İ. |last3=Mantoğlu |first3=S |last4=Kayalı |first4=S. |date=2012 |journal=Aquaculture International |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=869–878 |doi= 10.1007/s10499-012-9512-x|bibcode=2012AqInt..20..869G |s2cid=14643951 }}</ref> zebrafish,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://sfi.mnhn.fr/cybium/numeros/2013/371%20RIF/05-GeffroyRIF2012[17].pdf |title=Effects of a ''Spirulina platensis''-based diet on zebrafish female reproductive performance and larval survival rate |last1=Geffroy |first1=Benjamin |last2=Simon |first2=Olivier |date=2013 |journal=Cybium |volume=37 |issue=1–2 |pages=31–38 }}</ref> shrimp,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Use of ''Spirulina'' in Shrimp (''Penaeus japonicus'') diet |last1=Cuzon |first1=Gérard |last2=Santos |first2=Rossana Dos |last3=Hew |first3=Meng |last4=Poullaouec |first4=Gilles |date=1981 |journal=Journal of the World Mariculture Society |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=282–291 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-7345.1981.tb00302.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Administration of the hot-water extract of ''Spirulina platensis'' enhanced the immune response of white shrimp ''Litopenaeus vannamei'' and its resistance against ''Vibrio alginolyticus'' |last1=Tayag |first1=Carina Miranda |last2=Lin |first2=Yong-Chin |last3=Li |first3=Chang-Che |last4=Liou |first4=Chyng-Hwa |last5=Chen |first5=Jiann-Chu |date=2010 |journal=Fish & Shellfish Immunology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=764–773 |doi=10.1016/j.fsi.2010.01.023 |pmid= 20139007}}</ref> and [[abalone]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=The suitability of selected protein sources for inclusion in formulated diets for the South African abalone, Haliotis midae |last=Britz |first=Peter J. |date=1996 |journal=Aquaculture |volume=140 |issue=1 |pages=63–73 |doi=10.1016/0044-8486(95)01197-8 |bibcode=1996Aquac.140...63B }}</ref> and up to 2% spirulina per day in aquaculture feed can be safely recommended.<ref name=":0" /> |
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* [http://spirulina.org.uk/national-organic-standards/Chileannitrate-Spirulina.htm Chilean Nitrate banned in Organic Spirulina] |
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==Research== |
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According to the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]], scientific evidence is insufficient to recommend spirulina supplementation for any human condition, and more research is needed to clarify whether consumption yields any benefits.<ref name=medline-plus/> Administration of spirulina has been investigated as a way to control glucose in people with [[diabetes]], but the [[European Food Safety Authority]] rejected those claims in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Buono|first1=S.|last2=Langellotti|first2=A. L.|last3=Martello|first3=A.|last4=Rinna|first4=F.|last5=Fogliano|first5=V.|title=Functional ingredients from microalgae|journal=Food & Function|date=August 2014|volume=5|issue=8|pages=1669–1685|pmid=24957182|doi=10.1039/c4fo00125g|s2cid=45086708}}</ref> Spirulina has been studied as a potential nutritional supplement for adults and children affected by [[HIV]], but there was no conclusive effect on risk of death, body weight, or [[immune response]].<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24943654|year=2015|last1=McHenry|first1=M. S.|title=A Systematic Review of Nutritional Supplementation in HIV-Infected Children in Resource-Limited Settings|journal= Journal of the International Association of Providers of AIDS Care|volume=14|issue=4|pages=313–323|last2=Dixit|first2=A.|last3=Vreeman|first3=R. C.|doi=10.1177/2325957414539044|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=23450554|year=2013|last1=Grobler|first1=L.|title=Nutritional interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality in people with HIV|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=2|pages=CD004536|last2=Siegfried|first2=N.|last3=Visser|first3=M. E.|last4=Mahlungulu|first4=S. S.|last5=Volmink|first5=J.|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004536.pub3}}</ref> |
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==Risks== |
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Spirulina may have [[adverse effect|adverse interactions]] when taken with [[prescription drug]]s, particularly those affecting the [[immune system]] and [[blood clotting]].<ref name=medline-plus/> |
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=== Safety and toxicology === |
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Spirulina is a [[cyanobacterium]], others of which produce toxins such as [[microcystin]]s.<ref name="lactmed">{{cite journal | title=Spirulina |website=NIH National Library of Medicine | date=1 April 2019 | pmid=30000909 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501849/ | access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> Some spirulina supplements have been found to be contaminated with microcystins, albeit at levels below the limit set by the [[Oregon Health and Science University|Oregon Health Department]].<ref name="gilroy" /> Microcystins can cause [[gastrointestinal upset]], such as [[diarrhea]], [[flatulence]], headache, muscle pain, facial flushing, and sweating.<ref name=medline-plus/><ref name=lactmed/> If used chronically, [[liver damage]] may occur.<ref name="medline-plus" /> The effects of chronic exposure to even low levels of microcystins are a concern due to the risk of toxicity to several organ systems.<ref name="medline-plus" /><ref name="gilroy" /> |
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These toxic compounds are not produced by spirulina itself,<ref name="belay">{{cite book|last=Belay|first=Amha|title=Spirulina (Arthrospira): Production and Quality Assurance|journal=Spirulina in Human Nutrition and Health, CRC Press|year=2008|pages=1–25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vz7SpjEsE3IC|isbn=978-1-4200-5257-2}}</ref> but can occur if spirulina batches are contaminated with other, toxin-producing, blue-green algae. Because the U.S. considers spirulina a [[dietary supplement]], its government does not regulate its production and enforces no safety standards for its production or purity.<ref name="gilroy">{{cite journal |last1= Gilroy |first1=D. |last2=Kauffman |first2=K. |last3=Hall |first3=D. |last4=Huang |first4=X. |last5=Chu |first5=F. |display-authors=3 |title= Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements |journal= Environmental Health Perspectives |volume= 108 |issue= 5 |pages= 435–439 |doi= 10.2307/3454384 |pmc= 1638057 |pmid= 10811570 |year= 2000 |jstor= 3454384 }}</ref> The U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] describes spirulina supplements as "possibly safe", provided they are free of microcystin contamination, but "likely unsafe" (especially for children) if contaminated.<ref name=medline-plus/> Given the lack of regulatory standards in the U.S., some public-health researchers have raised the concern that consumers cannot be certain that spirulina and other blue-green algae supplements are free of contamination.<ref name="gilroy"/> In 1999, [[Health Canada]] found that one sample of spirulina was microcystin-free. ("...0/10 samples of ''Spirulina'' contained microcystins.")<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/programs/cyanobacterial-toxins-drinking-water/cyanobacterial-toxins-drinking-water.html|title=Cyanobacterial Toxins in Drinking Water|last=Canada|first=Health|date=2016-02-12|website=aem|access-date=2020-02-16}}</ref> |
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Heavy-metal contamination of spirulina supplements has also raised concern. The Chinese [[State Food and Drug Administration]] reported that [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and [[arsenic]] contamination was widespread in spirulina supplements marketed in China.<ref name="wp-china">{{cite news |newspaper= [[Washington Post]] |title= China's drug agency rejects state media claims of cover-up in lead found in health supplement |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-drug-agency-rejects-state-media-claims-of-tainted-spirulina-cover-up/2012/04/10/gIQAaEbt7S_story.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181231065040/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-drug-agency-rejects-state-media-claims-of-tainted-spirulina-cover-up/2012/04/10/gIQAaEbt7S_story.html |archive-date= December 31, 2018 |date= April 10, 2012 |access-date= April 23, 2012}}</ref> One study reported the presence of [[lead]] up to 5.1 ppm in a sample from a commercial supplement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url = https://jnutres.com/articles/spirulina-in-combating-protein-energy-malnutrition-pem-and-protein-energy-wasting-pew-a-review|title = Spirulina in combating Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) and Protein Energy Wasting (PEW) - A review|vauthors=Siva Kiran RR, Madhu GM, Satyanarayana SV |date = 2015|journal = Journal of Nutrition Research|volume=3|issue=1|pages=62–79|doi = 10.55289/jnutres/v3i1.5|s2cid = 87387740|doi-access = free}}</ref> Spirulina doses of 10 to 19 grams per day over several months have been used safely.<ref name=medline-plus/> |
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=== Safety issues for certain target groups === |
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Like all protein-rich foods, spirulina contains the essential amino acid [[phenylalanine]] (2.6–4.1 g/100 g),<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review" /> which should be avoided by people who have [[phenylketonuria]], a rare genetic disorder that prevents the body from metabolizing phenylalanine, which then builds up in the brain, causing damage.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Robb-Nicholson |first=C. |title= By the way, doctor |journal= Harvard Women's Health Watch |volume= 8 |year= 2006 }}</ref> |
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[[Microcystin]]s have various potential toxicity, especially to children and pregnant women,<ref name="tap">{{cite journal | title=Toxin content and cytotoxicity of algal dietary supplements |vauthors=Heussner AH, Mazija L, Fastner J, Dietrich DR | journal=Toxicol Appl Pharmacol | year=2012 | volume=265 | issue=2 | pages=263–271 | doi=10.1016/j.taap.2012.10.005 | pmid=23064102| url=http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-221238 }}</ref> including liver damage, [[shock (circulatory)|shock]], and death.<ref name=medline-plus/> |
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In 2024, a literature review on the allergic properties of spirulina was published. It was noted that to date (by July 2023), there have been 5 cases of allergy to spirulina, with 4 out of 5 cases resulting in anaphylaxis according to the classification from the World Allergy Organization's Anaphylaxis Guidance of 2020. Based on their research findings, instances of spirulina allergy are infrequently reported or identified., potentially due to spirulina's ability to inhibit mast cell degranulation, a critical component of allergic reactions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gromek |first1=Weronika |last2=Kołdej |first2=Natalia |last3=Kurowski |first3=Marcin |last4=Majsiak |first4=Emilia |date=January 2024 |title=Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis): Antiallergic Agent or Hidden Allergen? A Literature Review |journal=Foods |language=en |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=1052 |doi=10.3390/foods13071052 |doi-access=free |issn=2304-8158|pmc=11012157 }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Aphanizomenon flos-aquae]] |
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* [[Collaborative Inter-Governmental Scientific Research Institute]] |
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==References== |
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Revision as of 14:28, 12 June 2024
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spirulina_tablets.jpg/220px-Spirulina_tablets.jpg)
Spirulina is a biomass of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be consumed by humans and animals. The three species are Arthrospira platensis, A. fusiformis, and A. maxima.
Cultivated worldwide, Arthrospira is used as a dietary supplement or whole food.[1] It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium, and poultry industries.[2]
Etymology and ecology
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Spira400xwetcr.jpg/310px-Spira400xwetcr.jpg)
The species A. maxima and A. platensis were once classified in the genus Spirulina. The common name, spirulina, refers to the dried biomass of A. platensis,[3] which belongs to photosynthetic bacteria that cover the groups Cyanobacteria and Prochlorophyta. Scientifically, a distinction exists between spirulina and the genus Arthrospira. Species of Arthrospira have been isolated from alkaline brackish and saline waters in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus Arthrospira, A. platensis is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia. A. maxima is believed to be found in California and Mexico.[4] The term spirulina remains in use for historical reasons.[2]
Arthrospira species are free-floating, filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-handed helix. They occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate.[5] A. platensis occurs in Africa, Asia, and South America, whereas A. maxima is confined to Central America.[2] Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle wheels used to agitate the water.[5]
Spirulina thrives at a pH around 8.5 and above and a temperature around 30 °C (86 °F). They are autotrophic, meaning that they are able to make their own food, and do not need a living energy or organic carbon source. A nutrient feed for growing it[6] is:
- Baking soda 16 g/L (61 g/US gal)
- Potassium nitrate 2 g/L (7.6 g/US gal)
- Sea salt- 1 g/L (3.8 g/US gal)
- Potassium phosphate 0.1 g/L (0.38 g/US gal)
- Iron sulphate 0.0378 g/L (0.143 g/US gal)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 1,213 kJ (290 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
23.9 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sugars | 3.1 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 3.6 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
7.72 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Saturated | 2.65 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Monounsaturated | 0.675 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Polyunsaturated | 2.08 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
57.47 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tryptophan | 0.929 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Threonine | 2.97 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isoleucine | 3.209 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Leucine | 4.947 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lysine | 3.025 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Methionine | 1.149 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cystine | 0.662 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Phenylalanine | 2.777 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tyrosine | 2.584 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Valine | 3.512 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Arginine | 4.147 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Histidine | 1.085 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alanine | 4.515 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aspartic acid | 5.793 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Glutamic acid | 8.386 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Glycine | 3.099 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Proline | 2.382 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Serine | 2.998 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 4.68 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[7] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[8] |
Historical use
Spirulina was a food source for the Aztecs and other Mesoamericans until the 16th century; the harvest from Lake Texcoco in Mexico and subsequent sale as cakes were described by one of Cortés's soldiers.[9][10] The Aztecs called it tecuitlatl.[5]
Spirulina was found in abundance at Lake Texcoco by French researchers in the 1960s, but no reference to its use by the Aztecs as a daily food source was made after the 16th century, probably because of the draining of the surrounding lakes for agriculture and urban development.[5] The topic of tecuitlatl, which was discovered in 1520, was not mentioned again until 1940, when the Belgian phycologist Pierre Dangeard mentioned a cake called dihe consumed by the Kanembu tribe, who harvest it from Lake Chad in the African nation of Chad. Dangeard studied the dihe samples and found it to be a dried puree of the spring form of the blue-green algae from the lake. The dihe is used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad.[11]
During 1964 and 1965, the botanist Jean Leonard confirmed that dihe is made up of spirulina, and later studied a bloom of algae in a sodium hydroxide production facility. As a result, the first systematic and detailed study of the growth requirements and physiology of spirulina was performed as a basis for establishing large-scale production in the 1970s.[2][4]
Food and nutrition
Spirulina is being investigated to address food security and malnutrition, and as dietary support in long-term space flight or Mars missions.[12][13] Its advantage for food security is that it needs less land and water than livestock to produce protein and energy.[12]
Dried spirulina contains 5% water, 24% carbohydrates, 8% fat, and about 60% (51–71%) protein.[14][15]
As seen in the table of nutritional value, provided in its typical supplement form as a dried powder, a 100-g amount of spirulina supplies 290 kilocalories (1,200 kJ) and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of numerous essential nutrients, particularly protein, B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, providing 207%, 306%, and 85% DV, respectively), and dietary minerals, such as iron (219% DV) and manganese (90% DV). The lipid content of spirulina is 8% by weight providing the fatty acids, gamma-linolenic acid,[16][17] linoleic acid, stearidonic acid,[18] eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid.[19] In contrast to those 2003 estimates (of DHA and EPA each at 2 to 3% of total fatty acids), 2015 research indicated that spirulina products "contained no detectable omega-3 fatty acids" (less than 0.1%, including DHA and EPA).[20]
Vitamin B12
Spirulina contains no vitamin B12 naturally, and spirulina supplements are not considered to be a reliable source of vitamin B12, as they contain predominantly pseudovitamin B12 (Coα-[α-(7-adenyl)]-Coβ-cyanocobamide),[21] which is biologically inactive in humans.[22][23] In a 2009 position paper on vegetarian diets, the American Dietetic Association stated that spirulina is not a reliable source of active vitamin B12.[23] The medical literature similarly advises that spirulina is unsuitable as a source of B12.[22][24]
Animals and aquaculture
Various studies on spirulina as an alternative feed for animal and aquaculture have been done.[4] Spirulina can be fed up to 10% for poultry [25] and less than 4% for quail.[26] An increase in spirulina content up to 40 g/kg (0.64 oz/lb) for 16 days in 21-day-old broiler male chicks resulted in yellow and red coloration of flesh, possibly due to the accumulation of the yellow pigment zeaxanthin.[27] Pigs[28] and rabbits[29] can receive up to 10% of the feed and increase in the spirulina content in cattle resulted in increase in milk yield and weight.[30] Spirulina has been established[4] as an alternative feedstock and immune booster for bigmouth buffalo,[30] milk fish,[31] cultured striped jack,[32] carp,[33][34] red sea bream,[35] tilapia,[36] catfish,[37] yellow tail,[38] zebrafish,[39] shrimp,[40][41] and abalone,[42] and up to 2% spirulina per day in aquaculture feed can be safely recommended.[4]
Research
According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, scientific evidence is insufficient to recommend spirulina supplementation for any human condition, and more research is needed to clarify whether consumption yields any benefits.[1] Administration of spirulina has been investigated as a way to control glucose in people with diabetes, but the European Food Safety Authority rejected those claims in 2013.[43] Spirulina has been studied as a potential nutritional supplement for adults and children affected by HIV, but there was no conclusive effect on risk of death, body weight, or immune response.[44][45]
Risks
Spirulina may have adverse interactions when taken with prescription drugs, particularly those affecting the immune system and blood clotting.[1]
Safety and toxicology
Spirulina is a cyanobacterium, others of which produce toxins such as microcystins.[46] Some spirulina supplements have been found to be contaminated with microcystins, albeit at levels below the limit set by the Oregon Health Department.[47] Microcystins can cause gastrointestinal upset, such as diarrhea, flatulence, headache, muscle pain, facial flushing, and sweating.[1][46] If used chronically, liver damage may occur.[1] The effects of chronic exposure to even low levels of microcystins are a concern due to the risk of toxicity to several organ systems.[1][47]
These toxic compounds are not produced by spirulina itself,[48] but can occur if spirulina batches are contaminated with other, toxin-producing, blue-green algae. Because the U.S. considers spirulina a dietary supplement, its government does not regulate its production and enforces no safety standards for its production or purity.[47] The U.S. National Institutes of Health describes spirulina supplements as "possibly safe", provided they are free of microcystin contamination, but "likely unsafe" (especially for children) if contaminated.[1] Given the lack of regulatory standards in the U.S., some public-health researchers have raised the concern that consumers cannot be certain that spirulina and other blue-green algae supplements are free of contamination.[47] In 1999, Health Canada found that one sample of spirulina was microcystin-free. ("...0/10 samples of Spirulina contained microcystins.")[49]
Heavy-metal contamination of spirulina supplements has also raised concern. The Chinese State Food and Drug Administration reported that lead, mercury, and arsenic contamination was widespread in spirulina supplements marketed in China.[50] One study reported the presence of lead up to 5.1 ppm in a sample from a commercial supplement.[4] Spirulina doses of 10 to 19 grams per day over several months have been used safely.[1]
Safety issues for certain target groups
Like all protein-rich foods, spirulina contains the essential amino acid phenylalanine (2.6–4.1 g/100 g),[5] which should be avoided by people who have phenylketonuria, a rare genetic disorder that prevents the body from metabolizing phenylalanine, which then builds up in the brain, causing damage.[51]
Microcystins have various potential toxicity, especially to children and pregnant women,[52] including liver damage, shock, and death.[1]
In 2024, a literature review on the allergic properties of spirulina was published. It was noted that to date (by July 2023), there have been 5 cases of allergy to spirulina, with 4 out of 5 cases resulting in anaphylaxis according to the classification from the World Allergy Organization's Anaphylaxis Guidance of 2020. Based on their research findings, instances of spirulina allergy are infrequently reported or identified., potentially due to spirulina's ability to inhibit mast cell degranulation, a critical component of allergic reactions.[53]
See also
References
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