Content deleted Content added
stealth delete of images undone, no really justification for reordering sections. |
Badmachine (talk | contribs) Undid revision 388593088 by Badmachine (talk) |
||
(43 intermediate revisions by 15 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
#REDIRECT [[Strategic bombing#Terror bombing]] |
|||
{{Article issues |
|||
|cleanup =July 2009 |
|||
|unbalanced =July 2009 |
|||
|expand =July 2009 |
|||
|context =July 2009 |
|||
|introrewrite = September 2009}} |
|||
[[Image:Coventry bomb damage H5600.jpg|thumb|right|[[Coventry]] city centre following a devastating attack on the night of {{nowrap|14/15 November 1940}}]] |
|||
'''Terror bombing''' is an emotive term used to describe aerial attacks made by a belligerent to demoralise an enemy.<ref group=nb>For terrorist attacks that involve bombings see the articles [[terrorism]] and [[List of terrorist incidents]]</ref><ref>Nehemia Geva & Cigdem Sirin (Department of Political Science Texas A&M University), and Keren Sharvit (Psychology Department Tel Aviv University). ''The Impact and Thematic Relevance of Negative Emotions on Foreign Policy Preferences Concerning Terror'', [http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/0/4/6/4/pages204646/p204646-17.php p. 17] "(a) thematic relevance of the emotive trigger (terror bombing)"</ref><ref>Overy (2005), [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uocntt1lGDUC&pg=PA119&dq=terror+bombing&lr= p. 119]</ref> Use of the term to describe aerial attacks implies that the attacks are criminal attacks that fall outside the [[Aerial bombardment and international law|law of war]],<ref>Myrdal (1977), [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VNS8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA252#PPA252,M1 p. 252]</ref> or if within the laws of war are nevertheless a moral crime.<ref>Axinn (2008), [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xMC5bIE-q7QC&pg=PA73 p. 73]</ref> According to John Algeo in ''Fifty years among the new words'' its first recorded usage in a United States publication was in a Readers Digest article in June 1941, a finding confirmed by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]].<ref>Algeo, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=egxyM6zK0PEC&pg=RA1-PA111&dq=terror+bombing+goebbels+himmler&lr=&as_brr=3 p. 111] "TERROR BOMBING. Bombing designed to hasten the end of a war by terrorising the enemy population—1941 ''Read. Dig''. June p. 58/2 ..."</ref><ref>Oxford English Dictionary ''terror,n'', "'''terror-bombing''', intensive and indiscriminate bombing designed to frighten a country into surrender; '''terror raid''', a bombing raid of this nature".</ref> |
|||
The aerial attacks described as terror bombing are often long range [[strategic bombing]] raids, although attacks against tactical targets which result in the deaths of civilians may also be described as such, or if the attacks involve fighters [[strafing]] they may be labeled "terror attacks."<ref>Brower (1998), [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfnEdIFlh2AC&pg=PA108&dq=strafing+%22terror+attack%22#PPA108,M1 p. 108] (mentions that Historian Ronald Shaffer described [[Operation Clarion]], an operation that involved both bombing and strafing, as a terror attack).</ref> |
|||
== Chinese cities == |
|||
Japanese terror bombing was independently conducted by the [[Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service]] and the [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Service]]. Bombing efforts mostly targeted large Chinese cities such as [[Shanghai]], [[Wuhan]] and [[Bombing of Chongqing|Chonging]]. Three thousand tons of bombs were launched on the last one between 1939 and 1942. <ref>Don Moser, ''China-Burma-India'', Time-Life, 1978, p.8</ref> According to photograph Carl Mydans, the spring 1941 bombings on Chongqing were «the most destructive shelling ever made on a city.» <ref>Don Moser, ''China-Burma-India'', Time-Life, 1978, p.8</ref> |
|||
The bombing of [[Nanjing]] and [[Guangzhou|Canton]], which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests <ref>The Illustrated London News, Marching to War 1933-1939, Doubleday, 1989, p.135</ref> culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the [[League of Nations]]. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration. |
|||
{{quote|Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians...|Lord Cranborne <ref>The Illustrated London News, Marching to War 1933-1939, Doubleday, 1989, p.135</ref>}} |
|||
The Japanese also dropped [[biological weapons]] as part of their aerial bombardment campaign. For example, in 1940, the [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Force]] bombed [[Ningbo]] with ceramic bombs full of [[flea]]s carrying the [[bubonic plague]].<ref>''Japan triggered bubonic plague outbreak, doctor claims'', [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japan-triggered-bubonic-plague-outbreak-doctor-claims-704147.html], {{Citation |url= http://www.scaruffi.com/politics/wwii.html|title= A time-line of World War II|accessdate=2008-05-02 |last= Scaruffi |first= Piero|year= 1999|work= |publisher=}}</ref> A film showing this operation was seen by the imperial princes [[Tsuneyoshi Takeda]] and [[Prince Mikasa|Takahito Mikasa]] during a screening made by mastermind [[Shiro Ishii]]. <ref>Daniel Barenblatt, ''A Plague upon Humanity'', 2004, p.32.</ref> |
|||
== The Blitz == |
|||
[[The Blitz]] on British cities in WW2 is often cited as prime example of terror bombing,<ref>{{cite book |title=The first day of the blitz |last=Stansky |first=Peter |year=2007 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn= 9780300125566 |page= 137|accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Story of World War II|last= Miller|first= Donald|coauthors=Henry Steele Commager |year=2001 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn= 978-0743211987 |page= 41|accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Great Canadian War Stories|last=Whitaker|first=Muriel|year=2001|publisher=The University of Alberta Press|page=128|isbn=978-0888643834|accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> as its primary purpose was to demoralize the British people into surrendering,<ref>{{cite book|title=The winter of the bombs|last=Fitzgibbon|first=Constantine|year=1958|publisher=W.W.Norton |page=94 |oclc=619290}}</ref> exemplified by the 29 December raid on London in 1940, when the main target of which was [[St Paul's Cathedral]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Blitz: The Diary of an air raid |url=http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/blitz01.html |publisher= [[Channel 4]] |accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="Gaskin">{{cite book |title=Blitz: The Story of December 29, 1940 |last=Gaskin |first=Margaret |year=2006 |publisher=[[Harcourt (publisher)|Harcourt]] |isbn= 0151014043 |pages=82&c |accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> the night was specifically chosen so that the Thames would be at its lowest and thus provide the least amount of water to the firefighting operation,<ref name="Gaskin" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Britain and 1940:History, Myth and Popular Memory |last=Smith |first=Malcolm |page=78 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn= 041524076X |accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> the resulting firestorm destroyed an area of London greater than that destroyed in the great fire of London as such it has since been dubbed the [[Second Great Fire of London]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The 29th of December 1940 AD, Worst night of The Blitz |
|||
|url=http://www.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=236|publisher= information-britain.co.uk|accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> The use of unmanned Terror weapons by Germany such as the [[V-1 flying bomb|V1]] and [[V2]] and the [[Baedeker Blitz]] had a similar aim in the later stages of the war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Up in London 1939-45 | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/02/a2065402.shtml| publisher=[[BBC Online]]|accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> However, Sir Basil Collier, author of 'The Defence of the United Kingdom', the [[HMSO]]'s official history{{fact}}, wrote: |
|||
{{quote|Although the plan adopted by the Luftwaffe early September had mentioned attacks on the population of large cities, detailed records of the raids made during the autumn and the winter of 1940-41 does not suggest that indiscriminate bombing of the civilians was intended. The points of aim selected were largely factories and docks. Other objectives specifically allotted to bomber-crews included the [[City of London]] and the governmental quarter rounds [[Whitehall]].| [[Sir Basil Collier]] <ref>Collier, 1957. p. 261</ref>}} |
|||
==Dresden== |
|||
[[File:Fotothek df roe-neg 0002588 003 Blick von der Kreuzkirche über Gebäudetrümmer.jpg|thumb|The bombing of Dresden]] |
|||
The '''Bombing of [[Dresden]]''' by the British [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) and [[United States Army Air Force]] (USAAF) between 13 February and 15 February 1945, twelve weeks before the [[German Instrument of Surrender|surrender]] of the Armed Forces (''[[Wehrmacht]]'') of [[Nazi Germany]], remains one of the most controversial Allied actions of the [[World War II|Second World War]]. In four raids, 1,300 [[heavy bombers]] dropped more than 3,900 tons of high-explosive bombs and [[incendiary device]]s on the city, the [[baroque]] capital of the German state of [[Saxony]]. The resulting [[firestorm]] destroyed {{convert|39|km2|sqmi}} of the city centre.<ref> |
|||
*[http://www.spiegel.de/flash/0,5532,10589,00.html Aerial views of the damage], ''Der Spiegel'', retrieved 10 January, 2008. |
|||
*Angell (1953) The number of bombers and tonnage bombs in the lead are taken from a USAF document written in 1953 and classified secret until 1978. Also see Taylor (2005), front flap, which gives the figures 1,100 heavy bombers and 4,500 tons. |
|||
*Burleigh, Michael. [http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/history/0,6121,1142632,00.html "Mission accomplished"], ''The Guardian'', 7 February 2004. |
|||
*Addison (2006), Chapter "City under Attack" by Sonke Neitzel, p. 74. |
|||
*Bomber Command [[Arthur Harris]]'s report, [http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/heroesvillains/g1/cs3/g1cs3s1.htm "Extract from the official account of Bomber Command by Arthur Harris, 1945"], National Archives, Catalogue ref: AIR 16/487, which says that {{convert|1600|acre|km2}} were destroyed.</ref> Estimates of civilian casualties vary greatly, but recent publications place the figure between 24,000 and 40,000.<ref name=Historians-24-40>The consensus among historians is that the number killed was between slightly under 25,000 to a few thousand over 35,000.See |
|||
*Evans, Richard J. [http://www.holocaustdenialontrial.org/trial/defense/evans/520di#evans_520di7p512n52 ''David Irving, Hitler and Holocaust Denial: Electronic Edition''], [(i) Introduction. |
|||
*Addison (2006), p. 75. |
|||
*Taylor, Bloomsbury 2005, p. 508. |
|||
*All three historians, Addison, Evans and Taylor, refer to: |
|||
**Bergander, Götz (1977). ''Dresden im Luftkrieg: Vorgeschichte-Zerstörung-Folgen''. Munich: Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, who estimated a few thousand over 35,000. |
|||
**Reichert, Friedrich. "Verbrannt bis zur Unkenntlichkeit," in Dresden City Museum (ed.). ''Verbrannt bis zur Unkenntlichkeit. Die Zerstörung Dresdens 1945''. Altenburg, 1994, pp. 40-62, p. 58. Richard Evans regards Reichert's figures as definitive. [http://www.holocaustdenialontrial.org/trial/defense/evans/520di#evans_520di7p512n52]. For comparison, the 9-10 March, 1945 [[Bombing of Tokyo in World War II|Tokyo raid]] by the [[USAAF]], the most destructive firebombing raid in WWII, 16 square miles (41 km²) of the city were destroyed, and some 100,000 people are estimated to have died in the [[firestorm]]. [http://www.usaaf.net/ww2/hittinghome/hittinghomepg9.htm]</ref> |
|||
The German propaganda minister, [[Joseph Goebbels]], and other high ranking officials of the [[Third Reich]],<ref>Kochavi [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcfKhIPrU-UC&pg=PA172&as_brr=3 p. 172]</ref> frequently described attacks made on Germany by the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) and the [[United States Army Air Force]] (USAAF) during their [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing campaign]]s as terror attacks.<ref group= |
|||
nb>Hessel (2006), [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DKou4dziNCsC&pg=PA107 p. 107] Goebbels used several terms including |
|||
{{quote|''terrorangriffe'' (terror raids) or ''Terrorhandlungen'' (terrorist activities) ... ''Terrorflieger'' (terror flyers or terrorist airman). Needless to say, no one in Germany used such terminology in connection with German bombing raids against cities in England}} |
|||
</ref><ref group=nb>Fritz (2004), [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B-UgBAZmyMUC&pg=PA44&dq=terror+bombing+goebbels&as_brr=3 p. 44] {{quote|... Western Allies ... were "air pirates." "They are murderers!" screamed the headlines of an article emanating from Berlin on February 22. Not only dd the writer denounce the allied "terror bombing," he also stressed the "special joy" that the "Anglo-American air gangsters" took in murder of innocent German civilians ...}}</ref> The Allied governments usually described their [[aerial bombing of cities|attacks on cities]] with other euphemisms such as [[area bombing]] (RAF) or [[precision bombing]] (USAAF), and for most of World War II the Allied news media did the same. However, at a [[SHAEF]] press conference on 16 February 1945, two days after the [[Bombing of Dresden]], British Air Commodore [[Colin McKay Grierson]], replied to a question by one of the journalists that the primary target of the bombing had been on communications to prevent the Germans moving military supplies, and to stop movement in all directions if possible. He then added in an offhand remark that the raid also helped destroying what is left of German morale. Howard Cowan, an [[Associated Press]] war correspondent, subsequently filed a story about the Dresden raid. The military press censor at SHAEF made a mistake and allowed the Cowan cable to go out starting with "Allied air bosses have |
|||
have made the long awaited decision to adopt deliberate terror bombing of great German population centres<!--sic in the source--> as a ruthless expedient to hasten Hitler's doom." There were follow-up newspaper editorials on the issue and a long time opponent of strategic bombing, [[Richard Stokes]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]], asked questions in the House of Commons on 6 March.<ref>Taylor (2005) pp. 413,414</ref> |
|||
The controversy stirred up by the Cowan news report, reached the highest levels of the British Government when on 28 March 1945 the Prime Minister, [[Winston Churchill]], sent a memo by telegram to [[Hastings Lionel Ismay|General Ismay]] for the British Chiefs of Staff and the Chief of the Air Staff, in which he started with the sentence "It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of bombing of German cities simply for the sake of increasing the terror, though under other pretexts, should be reviewed. ..."<ref name=Siebert>Siebert, Detlef. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/area_bombing_01.shtml "British Bombing Strategy in World War Two"], 1 August, 2001, BBC, retrieved 8 January, 2008.</ref><ref name=Taylor-430>Taylor, (2005), p. 430.</ref> Under pressure from the Chiefs of Staff and in response to the views expressed by Sir [[Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford|Charles Portal]], [[Chief of the Air Staff]], and the head of Bomber Command [[Arthur "Bomber" Harris]] among others, Churchill withdrew his memo and issued a new one. <ref name=Taylor-430>Taylor (2005), p. 430.</ref> This was completed on 1 April, 1945 and started instead with the usual British euphemism for attacks on cities: "It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of the so called 'area-bombing' of German cities should be reviewed from the point of view of our own interests. ..."<ref name=Taylor-434>Taylor (2005), p. 434.</ref> |
|||
==Notes== |
|||
;Footnotes |
|||
{{reflist|group=nb}} |
|||
;Citations |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
==References== |
|||
*Algo, John (1993). ''Fifty years among the new words: a dictionary of neologisms, 1941-1991'', American Dialect Society, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521449715, 9780521449717 |
|||
*Axinn, Sidney (2008). A Moral Military'',Temple University Press, ISBN 1592139582, 9781592139583 |
|||
* The Blitz: London's Longest Night(2005) PBS television. |
|||
*Gaskin, Margaret (2006). Blitz: the The Story of December 29, 1940, Harcourt, ISBN 0151014043, 9780151014040 |
|||
*Brower, Charles F. (1998). ''World War II in Europe: the final year'', Roosevelt Study Center,, Palgrave Macmillan,ISBN 0312211333, 9780312211332 |
|||
*Hessel, Peter (2006). ''The Mystery of Frankenberg's Canadian Airman'', James Lorimer & Company, ISBN 1550288849, 9781550288841 |
|||
*Kochavi, Arieh J. (2005). ''Confronting captivity: Britain and the United States and their POWs in Nazi Germany'', UNC Press, ISBN 0807829404, 9780807829400 |
|||
*Myrdal, Alva (1977). ''The game of disarmament'' Manchester University Press ND, ISBN 0719006937, 9780719006937. |
|||
*Overy, R. J. (2005). ''The air war, 1939-1945'', Brassey's, ISBN 1574887165, 9781574887167. |
|||
*Fritz, G. Stephen (2004). ''Endkampf: soldiers, civilians, and the death of the Third Reich'', University Press of Kentucky, ISBN 0813123259, 9780813123257 |
|||
*Taylor, Frederick (2005). ''Dresden: Tuesday 13 February 1945''. London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7084-1. |
|||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Terror Bombing}} |
|||
[[Category:Aerial bombing]] |
|||
[[Category:Military scandals]] |
|||
[[Category:Military tactics]] |
|||
[[Category:Psychological warfare techniques]] |
|||
[[Category:Strategic bombing]] |
|||
[[Category:Terrorism tactics]] |
|||
[[da:Terrorbombning]] |
|||
[[fi:Terroripommitus]] |
|||
[[sv:Terrorbombning]] |
Latest revision as of 02:32, 4 October 2010
Redirect to: