Chalandray (talk | contribs) m cat removals: not a body of water, ch. cat: more specific |
|||
(181 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|World's largest geothermal field, California}} |
|||
[[Image:West Ford Flat Geothermal Cooling Tower.JPG|thumb|right|250px|West Ford Flat Geothermal Cooling Tower.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The West Ford Flat power plant is one of 22 power plants at The Geysers]] |
|||
{{Infobox power station |
|||
| name = The Geysers |
|||
| name_official = The Geysers |
|||
| image = Sonoma Plant at The Geysers 4778.png |
|||
| image_caption = The Sonoma Calpine 3 power plant is one of 18 power plants at The Geysers |
|||
| country = [[United States]] |
|||
| location = [[Sonoma County, California|Sonoma]] and [[Lake County, California|Lake]] counties<br>[[California]] |
|||
| coordinates = {{coord|38|47|26|N|122|45|21|W|type:landmark_region:US-CA|display=inline,title}} |
|||
| status = O |
|||
| construction_began = |
|||
| commissioned = September 1960<ref name=GBTN>{{Cite web|url=http://geysers.com/The-Geysers/Geysers-By-The-Numbers|title=Geysers By The Numbers|website=geysers.com|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref> |
|||
| decommissioned = |
|||
| cost = |
|||
| owner = [[Calpine Corporation]] <small>(86.5%)</small><br>[[Northern California Power Agency|NCPA]] <small>(4.5%)</small><br>[[Silicon Valley Power]] <small>(4.5%)</small><br>[[US Renewables Group|USRG]] <small>(4.5%)</small> |
|||
| operator = [[Calpine Corporation]] |
|||
| employees = |
|||
<!------------------------- GEOTHERMAL POWER STATIONS --> |
|||
| geo_type = [[Geothermal power#Dry steam power stations|Dry steam]] |
|||
| geo_temp_requirement = |
|||
| geo_well_count = 376 (active)<ref name=GBTN/><br>591 (total)<ref name=GBTN/> |
|||
| geo_well_depth = {{convert|12900|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=GBTN/> |
|||
| geo_water_output = |
|||
<!------------------------- GENERAL --> |
|||
| ps_site_area = {{convert|29000|acres|km2}}<ref name=GBTN/> |
|||
| ps_site_elevation = |
|||
| ps_cooling_towers = |
|||
| ps_feed-in_tariff = |
|||
| ps_revenue = |
|||
| ps_combined_cycle = |
|||
| ps_cogeneration = |
|||
| ps_thermal_capacity = |
|||
<!------------------------- PRODUCTION --> |
|||
| ps_units_operational = 22 units (18 power stations) |
|||
| ps_units_manu_model = |
|||
| ps_units_planned = 3 units |
|||
| ps_units_cancelled = |
|||
| ps_units_uc = |
|||
| ps_units_decommissioned = 7 units (4 power stations) |
|||
| ps_electrical_capacity = 1,590 [[Megawatt|MW]]<ref name=OSTI2010>{{Cite journal|title=The Geysers Geothermal Field Update1990/2010|date=2010-10-01|series=OSTI 1048267|doi=10.2172/1048267|osti = 1048267|last1=Brophy|first1=P.|last2=Lippmann|first2=M.|last3=Dobson|first3=P.F.|last4=Poux|first4=B.|s2cid=129885237 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc832510/}}</ref> |
|||
| ps_electrical_cap_fac = 53%<ref name=OSTI2010/> |
|||
| ps_annual_generation = 6,516 GWh <small>(2018)</small><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/browser/#/topic/1?agg=1,0,2&fuel=001&geo=000000000004&sec=g&freq=A&datecode=2018&rtype=s&start=200101&end=201911&ctype=map<ype=pin&rse=0&maptype=0&pin=|title=Electricity Data Browser - List of plants for geothermal, California, all sectors|website=www.eia.gov|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref> |
|||
| ps_storage_capacity = |
|||
| website = |
|||
}} |
|||
'''The Geysers''' is the world's largest geothermal field, containing a complex of 18 [[geothermal power]] plants, drawing steam from more than 350 wells, located in the [[Mayacamas Mountains]] approximately {{convert|72|mi|km}} north of [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. |
|||
Geysers produced about 20% of California's renewable energy in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yaleclimateconnections.org/2020/02/the-pros-and-cons-of-enhanced-geothermal-energy-systems/|title=The pros and cons of enhanced geothermal energy systems|last=McCarthy|first=Will|date=2020-02-06|website=Yale Climate Connections|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-17}}</ref> |
|||
'''The Geysers''' is a complex of 22 [[geothermal power]] plants, drawing steam from more than 350 wells, located in the [[Mayacamas Mountains]] {{nobreak|72 mi}} ({{nobreak|116 km}}) north of [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. |
|||
The largest in the world, the Geysers has {{nobreak|1517 [[Megawatt|MW]]}}<ref name="geothermal_power_plants_second_edition"> |
|||
{{Cite book | last1 = DiPippo | first1 = Ronald | title = Geothermal Power Plants, Second Edition: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact | date = | publisher = Butterworth-Heinemann | location = | isbn = 978-0-7506-8620-4 | pages = }}</ref> |
|||
of active installed capacity with an average production factor of 63 % (955 [[Megawatt|MW]]).<ref>{{Citation |
|||
| first1 = John W. | last1 = Lund |
|||
| first2 = R. Gordon | last2 = Bloomquist |
|||
| first3 = Tonya L. | last3 = Boyd |
|||
| first4 = Joel | last4 = Renner |
|||
| contribution = The United States of America Country Update |
|||
| contribution-url = http://www.osti.gov/geothermal/servlets/purl/895237-Vp8ett/895237.pdf |
|||
| series = Proceedings World Geothermal Congress |
|||
| date = 24–29 April 2005 |
|||
| place = Antalya, Turkey |
|||
| accessdate = 2009-11-09}} |
|||
</ref> |
|||
[[Calpine Corporation]] operates and owns 19 of the 22 active plants in the Geysers and is currently the United States' largest producer of geothermal energy. |
|||
Two other plants are owned jointly by the [http://www.ncpa.com Northern California Power Agency] and the City of [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]'s municipal [http://www.ci.santa-clara.ca.us/pub_utility/eu_index.html Electric Utility] (now called [[Silicon Valley Power]]). The Bottle Rock Power plant owned by the [[US Renewables Group]] has only recently been reopened.<ref> |
|||
{{cite news |title=Steamy industry may clear the air |first=David R. |last= Baker |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2007/01/14/BUGV2NHQP61.DTL |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |publisher= |location=Lake County |date=Sunday, January 14, 2007 |page=page F-1 |accessdate=2009-11-09}}</ref> |
|||
Another plant is under development by Ram Power Corp<ref>http://www.ram-power.com</ref>, formerly Western Geopower, with operation set to begin in 2010. |
|||
Since the activities of one geothermal plant affects those nearby, the consolidation of plant ownership at The Geysers has been beneficial because the plants operate cooperatively instead of in their own short-term interest. |
|||
== |
==History== |
||
[[File:The Geysers Resort Hotel.tif|thumb|The Geysers Resort Hotel, {{circa|1880}}]] |
|||
For about 12,000 years, Native American tribes built steambaths and thermal pools at the Geysers and used the steam and hot water for healing purposes, as well as spiritual and ceremonial practices, and cooking.<ref name="Hodgson">{{cite book|last=Hodgson|first=Susan F.|title=A Geysers Album: Five Eras of Geothermal History|year=2010|publisher=State of California Department of Conservation|location=Sacramento|url=ftp://ftp.consrv.ca.gov/pub/oil/publications/tr49.pdf| pages = 1–81 | access-date = February 9, 2014}}</ref> The thermal pools were used as a medicinal treatment for rheumatism and arthritis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nabokov, Loendorf |first=Peter, Lawrence |title=Restoring a Presence: American Indians and Yellowstone National Park |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780806135892 |pages=277}}</ref> The heated muds were used to soothe skin rashes and other aches and pains, using the fumaroles as a natural energy source.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lund |first=John W. |date=October 1995 |title=Historical Impacts of Geothermal Resources on the People of North America |url=https://oregontechsfstatic.azureedge.net/sitefinity-production/docs/default-source/geoheat-center-documents/quarterly-bulletin/vol-16/art2.pdf?sfvrsn=4b3f8d60_4 |journal=GeoHeat Center Bulletin}}</ref> When European Americans first entered the area, six Indian tribes inhabited the area around the Geysers, three bands of [[Pomo people]], two bands of [[Wappo people]], and the Lake [[Miwok people]].<ref name="Hodgson" /> The Wappo also collected [[sulfur]] which they called ''te'ke'' and a Wappo village, named ''tekena'ntsonoma'' (''teke'' sulphur + ''nan'' well containing water + ''tso'' ground + ''no'ma'' village) was located about {{convert|12|mi|km}} southeast of [[Cloverdale, California|Cloverdale]] and on the present-day Sulphur Creek.<ref name="Hodgson" /> Today, Calpine Corporation, the largest generator of electricity from natural gas and geothermal resources in the US, generates power at the site. |
|||
The Geysers were first seen by European Americans and named in 1847 during [[John Fremont]]'s survey of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Mountains]] and the [[Great Basin]] by William Bell Elliot who called the area "The Geysers," although the geothermal features he discovered were not technically [[geyser]]s, but [[fumarole]]s.<ref name="SAE">{{cite book|title=The Future of Energy: Earth, Wind and Fire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGfQmBtXYx0C&pg=PT160|date=April 8, 2013|publisher=Scientific American |isbn=978-1-4668-3386-9|pages=160–|access-date = February 9, 2014}}</ref> |
|||
The Geysers geothermal development spans an area of around {{nobreak|30 mi²}} ({{nobreak|78 km²}}) in [[Sonoma County, California|Sonoma]], [[Lake County, California|Lake]] and [[Mendocino County, California|Mendocino]] counties in California, located in the [[Mayacamas Mountains]]. Power from The Geysers provides electricity to Sonoma, Lake, Mendocino, Marin, and Napa counties. It is estimated that the development meets {{nobreak|60 %}} of the power demand for the coastal region between the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] and the [[Oregon]] state line.<ref name = "calpine"> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| title = Calpine Corporation - The Geysers |
|||
| url = http://www.geysers.com |
|||
| format = http |
|||
| accessdate = 2008-06-11 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Between 1848 and 1854, [[Archibald C. Godwin]] developed The Geysers into a spa named ''The Geysers Resort Hotel'', which attracted tourists including [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[Mark Twain]].<ref name="Hodgson" /><ref name="SAE" /><ref>{{cite web| title = A History of Geothermal Energy in the United States| url = http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/history.html| publisher = U.S. Department of Energy| year = 2010| access-date = May 17, 2007| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070904230627/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/history.html| archive-date = September 4, 2007}}</ref> The resort declined in popularity in the mid 1880s, and rebranded itself to appeal to lower-income people.<ref name="Hodgson" /> In 1938, the main building was destroyed in a landslide although the bar/restaurant, small cabins and the swimming pool stayed open, despite another fire in March 1957, until about 1979.<ref name="Hodgson" /> In 1960, [[Pacific Gas and Electric]] began operation of their 11-megawatt geothermal electric plant at the Geysers. [[Unocal Corporation]] dismantled the remains of the resort in 1980.<ref name="Hodgson" /> |
|||
Steam used at The Geysers is produced from a [[greywacke]] sandstone reservoir, that is capped by a heterogeneous mix of low permeability rocks and underlaid by a [[Felsite]] [[intrusion]].<ref name=reservoir>[http://www.osti.gov/geothermal/servlets/purl/887486-8h0FCj/887486.pdf RESERVOIR RESPONSE TO INJECTION IN THE SOUTHEAST GEYSERS], 1991 (pdf) Steve Enedy, Kathy Enedy, John Maney, Sixteenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering 1991. (accessed 2007-05-16)</ref> Gravity and seismic studies suggest that the source of heat for the steam reservoir is a large [[magma]] chamber over {{nobreak|4 mi}} ({{nobreak|7 km}}) beneath the ground, and greater than {{nobreak|8 mi}} ({{nobreak|14 km}}) in diameter.<ref name = "usgs"> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| title = Cascades Volcanic Observatory (USGS) - Clear Lake Volcanic Field, California |
|||
| url = http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/California/ClearLake/description_clear_lake.html |
|||
| format = http |
|||
| accessdate = 2007-05-16 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Unlike most geothermal resources, the Geysers is a dry steam field, which means it mainly produces [[superheated]] steam. Because the power plant turbines require a vapor phase input, dry steam resources are generally preferable. Otherwise, a two-phase separator is required between the turbine and the geothermal wells to remove condensation that is produced with the steam. |
|||
The Geysers complex is now recharged by injecting treated sewage effluent from the City of [[Santa Rosa, California|Santa Rosa]] and the [[Lake County, California|Lake County]] sewage treatment plant. This sewage effluent used to be dumped into rivers and streams and is now piped to the geothermal field where it replenishes the steam produced for power generation. |
|||
Five of the Geysers facilities were damaged in the [[Valley Fire]] of September 2015, suffering "severe" damage to their cooling towers. The main power houses were not damaged.<ref>{{cite web| title = Valley Fire Devastates Facilities At The Geysers Geothermal Power Plant | url = http://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2015/09/15/valley-fire-devastates-facilities-at-the-geysers-geothermal-power-plant/ | publisher=CBS Bay Area|year=2015|access-date=September 16, 2015}}</ref> The [[Kincade Fire]] was reported burning at John Kincade Road and Burned Mountain Road in The Geysers, at 9:27 PM on October 23, 2019.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-27/blackouts-take-effect-across-northern-california-as-kincade-fire-grows-winds-kick-up|title=Blackouts and mass evacuations as Kincade fire grows amid high winds|last1=Chabria|first1=Anita|last2=Dolan|first2=Maura|date=October 27, 2019|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=October 27, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/california-wildfires/article/Map-Kincade-Fire-north-Sonoma-County-14559006.php|title=Map: Kincade Fire burning in north Sonoma County|last=Graff|first=Amy|date=2019-10-24|website=SFGate|access-date=2019-11-06}}</ref> The fire started at 9:24 PM during an extreme wind event,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/questions-swirl-after-pge-admits-line-problem-around-kincade-fire-origin|title=Kincade Fire: Why PG&E is on the hot seat again over latest devastating wildfire|date=2019-10-25|website=The Mercury News|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-06}}</ref> and subsequently burned 77,758 acres (31,468 ha) until the fire was fully contained on November 6. |
|||
==Induced Seismicity== |
|||
[[Image:Geysers annual steam production.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Annual steam production plotted with the earthquake activity (M > 1.5 events) and water injection levels.]] |
|||
Current studies of The Geysers Geothermal Field seismicity have reached the conclusion that deep-well injection in the field produces mostly microseismic events between magnitude 0.5-3.0 on the Richter Scale (M).<ref name = "egs"> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| title = EGS: The Geysers: What is the history of seismicity at The Geysers? |
|||
| url = http://esd.lbl.gov/research/projects/induced_seismicity/egs/geysers_history.html |
|||
| format = http |
|||
| accessdate = 2010-01-18 |
|||
}}</ref> As can be seen in the figure, the seismicity between magnitude 3.0 and 4.6 (the largest event recorded in The Geysers field which was in 1973) is on the order of a few M4 events per year and on the order of 20 to 30 M3 events per year. Although the M4 events have been increasing, the number of M3 events have been relatively constant since the mid 1980s. |
|||
The Geysers Geothermal Power Development project was designated as a California Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the San Francisco Section of the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] in 1976.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rintoul |first=Bill |title=Kern County oilfields news |work=[[The Bakersfield Californian]] |date=August 10, 1976 |page=20}}</ref> |
|||
Worldwide, the largest induced seismic event to date linked to [[Enhanced Geothermal System]] (EGS) activity was M3.7<ref name = "egs"> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| title = EGS: The Geysers: What is the history of seismicity at The Geysers? |
|||
| url = http://esd.lbl.gov/research/projects/induced_seismicity/egs/geysers_history.html |
|||
| format = http |
|||
| accessdate = 2010-08-01 |
|||
}}</ref> in the [[Cooper Basin]] of [[Australia]]. However, research based on maximum fault lengths indicates that a M5.0 is the largest possible (but not probable) event in the Geysers. |
|||
==Geothermal development== |
|||
A concern to the residents is not only the amount of seismicity but the magnitude of the largest seismic event likely to occur. Although no one can accurately predict earthquakes, the magnitude of an earthquake is dependent on the surface area that can slip — the length times the depth or width of the fault. Therefore, a large earthquake can occur only on a large fault.<ref name = "geosc"> |
|||
[[Image:GeysersGeothermalDrilling1977.jpg|thumb|Drilling a geothermal well, 1977 (USGS)]] |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
The Geysers is the world's largest geothermal field<ref name="GeoEnergy" /> spanning an area of around {{convert|30|mi2|km2}} in [[Sonoma County, California|Sonoma]], [[Lake County, California|Lake]] and [[Mendocino County, California|Mendocino]] counties in California, centered in the area of [[Geyser Canyon]] and [[Cobb Mountain]]. Power from The Geysers provides electricity to Sonoma, Lake, Mendocino, [[Marin County, California|Marin]], and [[Napa County, California|Napa]] counties. It is estimated that the development meets 60% of the power demand for the coastal region between the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] and the [[Oregon]] state line.<ref name = "calpine">{{cite web| title = Calpine Corporation - The Geysers| url = http://www.geysers.com| access-date = 2008-06-11}}</ref> Unlike most geothermal resources, the Geysers is a dry steam field which mainly produces [[superheated]] steam.<ref name="GeoEnergy">{{cite book|last=Kagel|first=Alyssa|title=A Guide to Geothermal Energy and the Environment|publisher=Geothermal Energy Association|url=http://geo-energy.org/reports/environmental%20guide.pdf|author2=Diana Bates |author3=Karl Gawell |access-date=February 9, 2014}}</ref> |
|||
| title = Earthquake Size |
|||
| url = http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/earthquake_size.html |
|||
| format = http |
|||
| accessdate = 2010-08-01 |
|||
}}</ref> There are no mapped faults of large length in The Geysers, so it is extremely unlikely that induced seismicity caused by activities in The Geysers will lead to a large earthquake. |
|||
Steam used at The Geysers is produced from a [[greywacke]] sandstone reservoir, capped by a heterogeneous mix of low permeability rocks and underlain by a [[silicic]] [[intrusion]].<ref name="SAE" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Enedy|first=Steve|title=Reservoir Response To Injection In The Southeast Geysers|year=1991|publisher=Sixteenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering|url=http://www.osti.gov/geothermal/servlets/purl/887486-8h0FCj/887486.pdf|author2=Kathy Enedy |author3=John Maney |access-date=May 16, 2007}}</ref> Gravitational and seismic studies suggest that the source of heat for the steam reservoir is a large [[magma]] chamber over {{convert|4|mi|km}} beneath the surface, and greater than {{convert|8|mi|km}} in diameter.<ref>{{cite web| title = Cascades Volcanic Observatory (USGS) - Clear Lake Volcanic Field, California| url = http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/California/ClearLake/description_clear_lake.html| access-date = May 16, 2007}}</ref> |
|||
==History== |
|||
[[Image:GeysersGeothermalDrilling1977.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Drilling a geothermal well, 1977 (USGS).]] |
|||
The first recorded discovery of The Geysers was in 1847 during [[John Fremont]]'s survey of the [[Sierra Mountains]] and the [[Great Basin]] by William Bell Elliot. Elliot called the area "The Geysers," although the geothermal features he discovered were not technically [[geysers]], but [[fumaroles]]. Soon after, in 1852, The Geysers was developed into a spa for The Geysers Resort Hotel, which attracted the likes of [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], and [[Mark Twain]].<ref name = "history"> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| title = A History of Geothermal Energy in the United States |
|||
| url = http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/history.html |
|||
| format = http |
|||
| accessdate = 2007-05-17 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
The first geothermal wells drilled in Geyser Canyon were the first in the Western Hemisphere.<ref name="Hodgson" /> The first power plant at the Geysers was privately developed by the owner of The Geysers Resort<ref name="Hodgson" /> and opened in 1921, producing 250 kilowatts of power to light the resort.<ref name="SAE" /> In 1960, [[Pacific Gas and Electric]] began operation of their 11-megawatt plant at the Geysers.<ref name="100years">{{Citation| last =Lund | first =J.| date =September 2004| title =100 Years of Geothermal Power Production| periodical =Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin | location =Klamath Falls, Oregon | publisher =Oregon Institute of Technology| volume =25| issue =3| pages =11–19| url =http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull25-3/art2.pdf| issn =0276-1084| access-date = April 13, 2009}}</ref> The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 [[Megawatt|MW]] net power.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = McLarty| first1 = Lynn | last2 = Reed| first2 = Marshall J. | title = The U.S. Geothermal Industry: Three Decades of Growth| journal = Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects| volume = 14| issue = 4 | pages = 443–455 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = London | date = October 1992 | url = http://geotherm.inel.gov/publications/articles/mclarty/mclarty-reed.pdf | issn = 1556-7230 | doi = 10.1080/00908319208908739 }}</ref> |
|||
It was here that [[Pacific Gas and Electric]] began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power plant in the United States in 1960.<ref name="100years"> |
|||
{{Citation |
|||
| last =Lund | first =J. |
|||
| date =September 2004 |
|||
| title =100 Years of Geothermal Power Production |
|||
| periodical =Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin | publication-place =Klamath Falls, Oregon | publisher =Oregon Institute of Technology |
|||
| volume =25 |
|||
| issue =3 |
|||
| pages =11–19 |
|||
| url =http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull25-3/art2.pdf |
|||
| issn =0276-1084 |
|||
| accessdate =2009-04-13}}</ref> |
|||
The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 [[Megawatt|MW]] net power.<ref> |
|||
{{Cite journal |
|||
| last1 = McLarty | first1 = Lynn | last2 = Reed | first2 = Marshall J. |
|||
| title = The U.S. Geothermal Industry: Three Decades of Growth |
|||
| journal = Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects |
|||
| volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = pp. 443–455 |
|||
| publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = London | date = October 1992 |
|||
| url = http://geotherm.inel.gov/publications/articles/mclarty/mclarty-reed.pdf |
|||
| issn = 1556-7230 | doi = 10.1080/00908319208908739 | accessdate = }}</ref> |
|||
By 1999 the steam to power extraction had begun to deplete the Geysers steam field and production began to drop.<ref name="SAE" /> However, since October 16, 1997, the Geysers steam field has been recharged by injection of treated sewage effluent, producing approximately 77 megawatts of capacity in 2004.<ref name = "LakeCo">{{cite book|last=Dellinger|first=Mark|title=Geothermal and the Environment Lake County Success: Generating environmental gains with geothermal Power|date=May–June 2004|publisher=Lake County, California|url=http://geothermal.org/PDFs/Articles/lakeco.pdf|author2=Eliot Allen }}</ref> The effluent is piped up to {{convert|50|mi|km}} from its source at the Lake County Sanitation waste water treatment plants and added to the Geysers steam field via geothermal injection.<ref name = "LakeCo" /> |
|||
==Future== |
|||
In 2003, the City of Santa Rosa and Calpine Corporation partnered on constructing a 42-mile pipeline that became known at the Santa Rosa Geysers Recharge Project (SRGRP). Since 2003, SRGRP has delivered approximately 11 million gallons per day of [[Sewage treatment#Tertiary_treatment|tertiary treated wastewater]] to replenish The Geysers’ geothermal reservoir. In 2004, 85% of the effluent produced by four waste-water treatment plants serving 10 Lake County communities was diverted to the Geysers steam field.<ref name = "LakeCo" /> Injecting treated water into the Geysers field increases the amount of power that can be generated.<ref name = "LakeCo" /> |
|||
The injection of wastewater to the Geysers protects local waterways and [[Clear Lake (California)|Clear Lake]] by diverting effluent which used to be put into surface waters,<ref name = "LakeCo" /> and has produced electricity without releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.<ref name="SAE" /> |
|||
The Geysers electrical plant reached peak production in 1987, at that time serving 1.8 million people. Since then, the steam field has been in gradual decline as its underground water source decreases. Currently, the Geysers produce enough electricity for 1.1 million people. |
|||
===Geothermal power stations=== |
|||
Techniques developed from [[Enhanced Geothermal Systems]] research will increase the production of the region in the future. By reinjecting [[greywater]] from the nearby city of Santa Rosa, existing wells will be recharged. This water will be naturally heated in the geothermal reservoir, and be captured by the existing power plants as steam. The project should increase electrical output by {{nobreak|85 [[Megawatt|MW]]}}, enough for about 85,000 homes.<ref name = "recharge"> |
|||
This is a table of all constituent geothermal power stations sorted by unit identification.<ref name=OSTI2010/> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| title = National Renewable Energy Laboratory - Enhanced Geothermal Sources |
|||
[[Calpine]] owns 19 existing units, most of which were acquired from [[Pacific Gas and Electric|PG&E]] and [[Unocal Corporation|Unocal Geothermal]] in 1999. NCPA Units 1-4 are jointly owned by the [[Northern California Power Agency]] (NCPA) and [[Silicon Valley Power]]. [[Bottle Rock Power Plant|Bottle Rock]] is wholly owned by Bottle Rock Power LLC, a joint-venture between [[U.S. Renewables Group]] and [[Riverstone Holdings]].<ref name=OSTI2010/> |
|||
| url = http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/36317.pdf |
|||
| format = pdf |
|||
In addition, [[Ormat Technologies|Ormat]] owns the plans for a new 30 MW geothermal power station at the vacant Calpine 15 site that were acquired through a merger with [[U.S. Geothermal]] in 2018. The plans were previously developed by [[Polaris Infrastructure|Ram Power]] before being sold to U.S. Geothermal in 2014.<ref name=OSTI2010/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://investor.ormat.com/file/Index?KeyFile=393150291|title=Ormat Technologies Inc. - Press Release|website=investor.ormat.com|access-date=2020-02-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/ram-power-becomes-polaris-infrastructure-inc/|title=Ram Power becomes Polaris Infrastructure Inc.|website=Think GeoEnergy - Geothermal Energy News|date=15 May 2015|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-18}}</ref> |
|||
| accessdate = 2007-06-01 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
{{mw-datatable}} |
|||
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable" |
|||
|- |
|||
! Name |
|||
! Unit |
|||
! Type |
|||
! Status |
|||
! Capacity<br/>([[Megawatt|MW<sub>el</sub>]]) |
|||
! Commissioned |
|||
! Decommissioned |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Bottle Rock Power Plant|Bottle Rock]] || {{abbr|BRP|Bottle Rock Power}} || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|March 1985}} {{NoteTag|Bottle Rock was re‐commissioned in October 2007 after being brought offline in 1991 by its former owner [[California Department of Water Resources|DWR]].}}<br/>{{dts|October 2007}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Aidlin || [[Calpine]] 1 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 20 || {{dts|May 1989}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Bear Canyon || [[Calpine]] 2 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 20 || {{dts|September 1988}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Sonoma || [[Calpine]] 3 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 78 || {{dts|December 1983}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| West Ford Flat || [[Calpine]] 4 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 27 || {{dts|December 1988}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| McCabe || [[Calpine]] 5 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|April 1971}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Calpine]] 6 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|April 1971}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| Ridge Line || [[Calpine]] 7 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|July 1972}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Calpine]] 8 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|July 1972}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| Fumarole || [[Calpine]] 9 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{partial|Offline since 2001}} || 55 || {{dts|November 1973}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Calpine]] 10 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{partial|Offline since 2000}} || 55 || {{dts|November 1973}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Eagle Rock || [[Calpine]] 11 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 110 || {{dts|December 1975}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Cobb Creek || [[Calpine]] 12 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 110 || {{dts|August 1979}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Big Geysers || [[Calpine]] 13 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 60 || {{dts|April 1980}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Sulfur Springs || [[Calpine]] 14 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 114 || {{dts|February 1980}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| PG&E 15 {{NoteTag|Calpine never renamed PG&E 15 due to its decommissioning two years before being acquired from PG&E and Unocal Geothermal.}} || [[Calpine]] 15 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 62 || {{dts|June 1979}} || 1997 (Dismantled) |
|||
|- |
|||
| Quicksilver || [[Calpine]] 16 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 119 || {{dts|October 1985}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Lake View || [[Calpine]] 17 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 119 || {{dts|November 1982}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Socrates || [[Calpine]] 18 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 119 || {{dts|November 1983}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Calistoga || [[Calpine]] 19 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 80 || {{dts|March 1984}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Grant || [[Calpine]] 20 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 119 || {{dts|October 1985}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Buckeye || [[Calpine]] || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{planned|Planned}} || ? || TBD || |
|||
|- |
|||
| Wild Horse || [[Calpine]] || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{planned|Planned}} || ? || TBD || |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| Coldwater Creek || [[Central California Power Association|CCPA]] 1 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 65 || {{dts|May 1988}} || 2000 (Dismantled) |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Central California Power Association|CCPA]] 2 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 65 || {{dts|October 1988}} || 2000 (Dismantled) |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| NCPA 1 & 2 || [[Northern California Power Agency|NCPA]] 1 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|February 1983}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Northern California Power Agency|NCPA]] 2 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|February 1983}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| NCPA 3 & 4 || [[Northern California Power Agency|NCPA]] 3 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|November 1985}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Northern California Power Agency|NCPA]] 4 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{yes|Operational}} || 55 || {{dts|November 1985}} || |
|||
|- |
|||
| TBD || [[Ormat Technologies|Ormat]] || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{planned|Planned}} || 30 || TBD || |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| PG&E 1 & 2 || [[Pacific Gas and Electric|PG&E]] 1 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 12 || {{dts|September 1960}} || 1993 (Dismantled) |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Pacific Gas and Electric|PG&E]] 2 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 14 || {{dts|September 1960}} || 1993 (Dismantled) |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan=2| PG&E 3 & 4 || [[Pacific Gas and Electric|PG&E]] 3 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 28 || {{dts|March 1963}} || 1995 (Dismantled) |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Pacific Gas and Electric|PG&E]] 4 || [[Geothermal power#Power station types|Dry steam]] || {{no|Decommissioned}} || 28 || {{dts|March 1963}} || 1995 (Dismantled) |
|||
|} |
|||
{{NoteFoot}} |
|||
==Seismicity== |
|||
For the past several decades, small earthquakes (less than 2.0) are regularly recorded in the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scedc.caltech.edu/recent/Maps/San_Francisco.html|title = List of Earthquakes for San Francisco}}</ref> It has been estimated that 99% of all seismic activity at and surrounding The Geysers is around 3.0 or smaller. In fact, "the frequency of seismic events greater than 3.0 have been trending downward since 1990". Due to the remote location it is very infrequent for humans to feel the effect of this tectonic shake. Typically seismic activity in this area is measured using seismometers that can pick up on micro seismicity down to extremely minute levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seismicity |url=https://geysers.com/seismicity |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=geysers.com}}</ref> This has been demonstrated to be caused by the water injection process used to produce the geothermal electricity at the power plant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why are there so many earthquakes in the Geysers area in Northern California? |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/why-are-there-so-many-earthquakes-geysers-area-northern-california?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products}}</ref> |
|||
According to the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] Earth Sciences division, [[earthquake|seismicity]] was very low prior to the use of the Geyser steam field for geothermal energy, although this may have been the result of low seismic coverage of the area.<ref name="EGS">{{cite web|title=EGS: The Geysers: What is the history of seismicity at The Geysers?|url=http://esd.lbl.gov/research/projects/induced_seismicity/egs/geysers_history.html|work=Induced seismicity|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Earth Sciences Division|access-date=February 9, 2014}}</ref> Before 1969, there were no earthquakes above [[Earthquake magnitude#Magnitude scales|magnitude]] 2 recorded by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) in an approximately {{convert|70|mi2|km2}} area around the Geysers.<ref name="EGS" /> Studies have shown that injecting water into the Geysers field produces earthquakes from magnitude 0.5 to 3.0, although a 4.6 occurred in 1973 and magnitude four events increased thereafter.<ref name="EGS" /> Even with increasing injection rates over time, the rate of magnitude 3 earthquakes has remained relatively unchanged since the 1980s,<ref name="EGS" /> although the absolute number of earthquakes has increased significantly.<ref name="SAE" /> A magnitude 4.5 earthquake struck near the Geysers on January 12, 2014 and a magnitude 5.0 on December 14, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=M4.5 - 6km NW of The Geysers, California|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/nc72141176#summary|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=February 9, 2014}}</ref> A magnitude 3.8 earthquake, with a hypocenter 600 meters directly under the field, struck in the early hours of March 3, 2022.<ref>{{cite web|title=M 3.8 - 0km WNW of The Geysers, CA|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/nc73700486/executive|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=March 3, 2022}}</ref> Despite the increases in the number of earthquakes and the fears of local residents, it is unlikely that a large earthquake will occur at the Geysers since there is no [[Fault (geology)|fault]] or fracture nearby.<ref name="SAE" /> |
|||
==Geochemistry== |
|||
In 2005, abatement equipment was installed at two of the Geysers plants to reduce the amount of mercury released by the waste vapor even though the amount released was below the legal limit for such releases.<ref name="GeoEnergy" /> The Geysers Air Monitoring Programs (GAMP) has shown limited releases of arsenic, but again below a significant level.<ref name="GeoEnergy" /> |
|||
==Production== |
|||
Power plants at the Geysers are of the dry steam power plant type, where the steam directly powers the generator.<ref name="GeoEnergy" /> In general, the Geysers has {{nowrap|1517 [[Megawatt|MW]]}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald DiPippo|title=Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsSN8gdqKWEC|year=2008|publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology|isbn=978-0-7506-8620-4}}</ref> of active installed capacity with an average production factor of 63% (955 MW).<ref>{{Citation | first1 = John W. | last1 = Lund | first2 = R. Gordon | last2 = Bloomquist | first3 = Tonya L. | last3 = Boyd | first4 = Joel | last4 = Renner |title = The United States of America Country Update| url = http://www.osti.gov/geothermal/servlets/purl/895237-Vp8ett/895237.pdf | series = Proceedings World Geothermal Congress | date = 24–29 April 2005 | place = Antalya, Turkey | access-date = 2009-11-09}}</ref> |
|||
Of nearly two dozen active plants in the Geysers in 2014, [[Calpine Corporation]] operated 19 plants in 2004<ref>{{cite book|author=Ann Chambers|title=Renewable Energy in Nontechnical Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkiMm9fbt7MC&pg=PA143|year=2004|publisher=PennWell Books|isbn=978-1-59370-005-8|pages=143–}}</ref> but only 15 in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wilkison|first=Brett|title=Sonoma Clean Power makes deal with Geysers operator|url=http://www.pressdemocrat.com/article/20131115/articles/131119694|access-date=February 9, 2014|newspaper=Santa Rosa Press Democrat|date=November 15, 2013}}</ref> Two other plants are owned jointly by the [[Northern California Power Agency]] and the City of [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Baker|title=Steamy industry may clear the air / Geothermal energy producers try to develop more plants -- and more public awareness|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2007/01/14/BUGV2NHQP61.DTL |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |location=Lake County |date=January 14, 2007 |page=F-1 |access-date=November 11, 2009}}</ref> In July 2009, [[AltaRock Energy]] planned to drill more than {{convert|2|mi|km}} down to create an "enhanced geothermal" project which was abandoned when federal agencies asked for review.<ref name="SAE" /> Another plant was under development by Ram Power Corporation, formerly Western Geopower, in 2010, but after Ram Power lost both its CEO and CFO in 2013, it was seeking a buyer for its Geysers property.<ref>{{cite news|last=Davis|first=Tina|title=Ram Power CEO and CFO to Depart, Seeks Buyer for Geysers Project|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-01-28/ram-power-ceo-and-cfo-to-depart-seeks-buyer-for-geysers-project.html|access-date=February 9, 2014|publisher=Bloomberg News|date=January 28, 2013}}</ref> |
|||
==Geology== |
|||
{{multiple image |
|||
|image1 = The Geysers geologic features.png |
|||
|image2 = The Geysers geologic structure.png |
|||
|footer = Geologic features of The Geysers geothermal area |
|||
|total_width = 440 |
|||
}} |
|||
The Geysers is located on the northeast limb of the Mayacamas [[anticline]], bounded by the Collayomi [[fault (geology)|Fault]] on the northeast and the Mercuryville Fault on the southwest. The central and eastern Franciscan belts form the core of this anticline. Within this belt is a rock unit forming the reservoir rock, consisting of a sheared and fractured graywacke. A large [[Bouguer Gravity]] anomaly combined with slower seismic velocities, located below the [[Clear Lake Volcanic Field]], suggests a magma body is heating the geothermal area.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McLaughlin |first1=Robert |editor1-last=McLaughlin |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Donnelly-Nolan |editor2-first=Julie |title=Tectonic Setting of Pre-Tertiary Rocks and Its Relation to Geothermal Resources in the Geysers-Clear Lake Area, in Research in the Geysers-Clear Lake Geothermal Area, Northern California, USGS Professional Paper 1141 |date=1981 |publisher=US Government Printing Office |location=Washington |pages=9–11}}</ref> |
|||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
{{Portal| |
{{Portal|California|Geology|Renewable energy}} |
||
*[[ |
* [[List of geothermal power stations in the United States]] |
||
*[[ |
* [[List of power stations in California]] |
||
*[[AltaRock Energy]] |
|||
{{Clear|right}} |
|||
==References== |
==References== |
||
Line 122: | Line 194: | ||
==External links== |
==External links== |
||
{{Commons category|The Geysers}} |
|||
*[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/08-15-2007/0004646167&EDATE= Calpine to Increase Renewable Energy Production at The Geysers; Calpine and Santa Rosa to Expand Geysers Recharge Project] |
|||
*{{cite book|author=Jeremy Shere|title=Renewable: The World-Changing Power of Alternative Energy|url=https://archive.org/details/renewableworldch0000sher|url-access=registration|date=November 26, 2013|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-1-250-03822-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/renewableworldch0000sher/page/151 151]–}} |
|||
*[http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/recenteqs/Maps/123-39.htm USGS map of frequent earthquakes in the Geyser area] |
|||
*{{cite web|title=EGS: Interactive, Real-Time Map of Earthquakes at The Geysers|url=http://esd.lbl.gov/research/projects/induced_seismicity/egs/geysers.html|work=Induced Seismicity|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Earth Sciences Division|access-date=February 9, 2014}} |
|||
{{Coord|38|47|26|N|122|45|21|W|region:US-CA_type:city|display=title}} |
|||
*{{cite report|title=A Geysers Album: History of The Geysers Geothermal field.|publisher=California Department of Conservation. Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources|year= 1992|url=https://archive.org/details/gov.ca.cdc.doggr.2.7}} |
|||
*[http://esd.lbl.gov/research/projects/induced_seismicity/egs/geysers.html Interactive, Real-Time Map of Earthquakes at The Geysers] |
|||
*{{cite book|title=U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fEzwAAAAMAAJ&pg=SL3-PA74|year=1996|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=3–}} |
|||
{{Generating stations in California|state=autocollapse}} |
|||
<!-- {{Coord|38|47|26|N|122|45|21|W|region:US-CA_type:city|display=title}} --> |
|||
{{Authority control}} |
|||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Geysers, The}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Geysers, The}} |
||
[[Category:Energy resource facilities in California]] |
|||
[[Category:Landforms of Sonoma County, California]] |
|||
[[Category:Geography of the San Francisco Bay Area]] |
|||
[[Category:Geothermal power stations in the United States]] |
|||
[[Category:Hot springs of California]] |
[[Category:Hot springs of California]] |
||
[[Category: |
[[Category:Mayacamas Mountains]] |
||
[[Category:Geothermal power stations in California]] |
|||
[[Category:California Coast Ranges]] |
|||
[[Category:Geology of Mendocino County, California]] |
|||
[[Category:Geology of Sonoma County, California]] |
|||
[[Category:Geography of Lake County, California]] |
|||
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1960]] |
|||
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Sonoma County, California]] |
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Sonoma County, California]] |
||
[[Category:Geography of the San Francisco Bay Area]] |
|||
[[Category:Energy in the San Francisco Bay Area]] |
|||
[[fr:The Geysers]] |
|||
[[Category:1921 establishments in California]] |
|||
[[hr:Geotermalne elektrane Geysers]] |
|||
[[simple:The Geysers]] |
|||
[[uk:Великі гейзери]] |
Revision as of 16:58, 10 May 2024
The Geysers | |
---|---|
Official name | The Geysers |
Country | United States |
Location | Sonoma and Lake counties California |
Coordinates | 38°47′26″N 122°45′21″W / 38.79056°N 122.75583°W |
Status | Operational |
Commission date | September 1960[1] |
Owner(s) | Calpine Corporation (86.5%) NCPA (4.5%) Silicon Valley Power (4.5%) USRG (4.5%) |
Operator(s) | Calpine Corporation |
Geothermal power station | |
Type | Dry steam |
Wells | 376 (active)[1] 591 (total)[1] |
Max. well depth | 12,900 ft (3,900 m)[1] |
Site area | 29,000 acres (120 km2)[1] |
Power generation | |
Units operational | 22 units (18 power stations) |
Units planned | 3 units |
Units decommissioned | 7 units (4 power stations) |
Nameplate capacity | 1,590 MW[2] |
Capacity factor | 53%[2] |
Annual net output | 6,516 GWh (2018)[3] |
External links | |
Commons | Related media on Commons |
The Geysers is the world's largest geothermal field, containing a complex of 18 geothermal power plants, drawing steam from more than 350 wells, located in the Mayacamas Mountains approximately 72 miles (116 km) north of San Francisco, California.
Geysers produced about 20% of California's renewable energy in 2019.[4]
History
For about 12,000 years, Native American tribes built steambaths and thermal pools at the Geysers and used the steam and hot water for healing purposes, as well as spiritual and ceremonial practices, and cooking.[5] The thermal pools were used as a medicinal treatment for rheumatism and arthritis.[6] The heated muds were used to soothe skin rashes and other aches and pains, using the fumaroles as a natural energy source.[7] When European Americans first entered the area, six Indian tribes inhabited the area around the Geysers, three bands of Pomo people, two bands of Wappo people, and the Lake Miwok people.[5] The Wappo also collected sulfur which they called te'ke and a Wappo village, named tekena'ntsonoma (teke sulphur + nan well containing water + tso ground + no'ma village) was located about 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Cloverdale and on the present-day Sulphur Creek.[5] Today, Calpine Corporation, the largest generator of electricity from natural gas and geothermal resources in the US, generates power at the site.
The Geysers were first seen by European Americans and named in 1847 during John Fremont's survey of the Sierra Mountains and the Great Basin by William Bell Elliot who called the area "The Geysers," although the geothermal features he discovered were not technically geysers, but fumaroles.[8]
Between 1848 and 1854, Archibald C. Godwin developed The Geysers into a spa named The Geysers Resort Hotel, which attracted tourists including Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt and Mark Twain.[5][8][9] The resort declined in popularity in the mid 1880s, and rebranded itself to appeal to lower-income people.[5] In 1938, the main building was destroyed in a landslide although the bar/restaurant, small cabins and the swimming pool stayed open, despite another fire in March 1957, until about 1979.[5] In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of their 11-megawatt geothermal electric plant at the Geysers. Unocal Corporation dismantled the remains of the resort in 1980.[5]
Five of the Geysers facilities were damaged in the Valley Fire of September 2015, suffering "severe" damage to their cooling towers. The main power houses were not damaged.[10] The Kincade Fire was reported burning at John Kincade Road and Burned Mountain Road in The Geysers, at 9:27 PM on October 23, 2019.[11][12] The fire started at 9:24 PM during an extreme wind event,[13] and subsequently burned 77,758 acres (31,468 ha) until the fire was fully contained on November 6.
The Geysers Geothermal Power Development project was designated as a California Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the San Francisco Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1976.[14]
Geothermal development
The Geysers is the world's largest geothermal field[15] spanning an area of around 30 square miles (78 km2) in Sonoma, Lake and Mendocino counties in California, centered in the area of Geyser Canyon and Cobb Mountain. Power from The Geysers provides electricity to Sonoma, Lake, Mendocino, Marin, and Napa counties. It is estimated that the development meets 60% of the power demand for the coastal region between the Golden Gate Bridge and the Oregon state line.[16] Unlike most geothermal resources, the Geysers is a dry steam field which mainly produces superheated steam.[15]
Steam used at The Geysers is produced from a greywacke sandstone reservoir, capped by a heterogeneous mix of low permeability rocks and underlain by a silicic intrusion.[8][17] Gravitational and seismic studies suggest that the source of heat for the steam reservoir is a large magma chamber over 4 miles (6.4 km) beneath the surface, and greater than 8 miles (13 km) in diameter.[18]
The first geothermal wells drilled in Geyser Canyon were the first in the Western Hemisphere.[5] The first power plant at the Geysers was privately developed by the owner of The Geysers Resort[5] and opened in 1921, producing 250 kilowatts of power to light the resort.[8] In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of their 11-megawatt plant at the Geysers.[19] The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power.[20]
By 1999 the steam to power extraction had begun to deplete the Geysers steam field and production began to drop.[8] However, since October 16, 1997, the Geysers steam field has been recharged by injection of treated sewage effluent, producing approximately 77 megawatts of capacity in 2004.[21] The effluent is piped up to 50 miles (80 km) from its source at the Lake County Sanitation waste water treatment plants and added to the Geysers steam field via geothermal injection.[21] In 2003, the City of Santa Rosa and Calpine Corporation partnered on constructing a 42-mile pipeline that became known at the Santa Rosa Geysers Recharge Project (SRGRP). Since 2003, SRGRP has delivered approximately 11 million gallons per day of tertiary treated wastewater to replenish The Geysers’ geothermal reservoir. In 2004, 85% of the effluent produced by four waste-water treatment plants serving 10 Lake County communities was diverted to the Geysers steam field.[21] Injecting treated water into the Geysers field increases the amount of power that can be generated.[21]
The injection of wastewater to the Geysers protects local waterways and Clear Lake by diverting effluent which used to be put into surface waters,[21] and has produced electricity without releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.[8]
Geothermal power stations
This is a table of all constituent geothermal power stations sorted by unit identification.[2]
Calpine owns 19 existing units, most of which were acquired from PG&E and Unocal Geothermal in 1999. NCPA Units 1-4 are jointly owned by the Northern California Power Agency (NCPA) and Silicon Valley Power. Bottle Rock is wholly owned by Bottle Rock Power LLC, a joint-venture between U.S. Renewables Group and Riverstone Holdings.[2]
In addition, Ormat owns the plans for a new 30 MW geothermal power station at the vacant Calpine 15 site that were acquired through a merger with U.S. Geothermal in 2018. The plans were previously developed by Ram Power before being sold to U.S. Geothermal in 2014.[2][22][23]
Name | Unit | Type | Status | Capacity (MWel) |
Commissioned | Decommissioned |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bottle Rock | BRP | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | March 1985 [note 1] October 2007 |
|
Aidlin | Calpine 1 | Dry steam | Operational | 20 | May 1989 | |
Bear Canyon | Calpine 2 | Dry steam | Operational | 20 | September 1988 | |
Sonoma | Calpine 3 | Dry steam | Operational | 78 | December 1983 | |
West Ford Flat | Calpine 4 | Dry steam | Operational | 27 | December 1988 | |
McCabe | Calpine 5 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | April 1971 | |
Calpine 6 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | April 1971 | ||
Ridge Line | Calpine 7 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | July 1972 | |
Calpine 8 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | July 1972 | ||
Fumarole | Calpine 9 | Dry steam | Offline since 2001 | 55 | November 1973 | |
Calpine 10 | Dry steam | Offline since 2000 | 55 | November 1973 | ||
Eagle Rock | Calpine 11 | Dry steam | Operational | 110 | December 1975 | |
Cobb Creek | Calpine 12 | Dry steam | Operational | 110 | August 1979 | |
Big Geysers | Calpine 13 | Dry steam | Operational | 60 | April 1980 | |
Sulfur Springs | Calpine 14 | Dry steam | Operational | 114 | February 1980 | |
PG&E 15 [note 2] | Calpine 15 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 62 | June 1979 | 1997 (Dismantled) |
Quicksilver | Calpine 16 | Dry steam | Operational | 119 | October 1985 | |
Lake View | Calpine 17 | Dry steam | Operational | 119 | November 1982 | |
Socrates | Calpine 18 | Dry steam | Operational | 119 | November 1983 | |
Calistoga | Calpine 19 | Dry steam | Operational | 80 | March 1984 | |
Grant | Calpine 20 | Dry steam | Operational | 119 | October 1985 | |
Buckeye | Calpine | Dry steam | Planned | ? | TBD | |
Wild Horse | Calpine | Dry steam | Planned | ? | TBD | |
Coldwater Creek | CCPA 1 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 65 | May 1988 | 2000 (Dismantled) |
CCPA 2 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 65 | October 1988 | 2000 (Dismantled) | |
NCPA 1 & 2 | NCPA 1 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | February 1983 | |
NCPA 2 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | February 1983 | ||
NCPA 3 & 4 | NCPA 3 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | November 1985 | |
NCPA 4 | Dry steam | Operational | 55 | November 1985 | ||
TBD | Ormat | Dry steam | Planned | 30 | TBD | |
PG&E 1 & 2 | PG&E 1 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 12 | September 1960 | 1993 (Dismantled) |
PG&E 2 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 14 | September 1960 | 1993 (Dismantled) | |
PG&E 3 & 4 | PG&E 3 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 28 | March 1963 | 1995 (Dismantled) |
PG&E 4 | Dry steam | Decommissioned | 28 | March 1963 | 1995 (Dismantled) |
Seismicity
For the past several decades, small earthquakes (less than 2.0) are regularly recorded in the area.[24] It has been estimated that 99% of all seismic activity at and surrounding The Geysers is around 3.0 or smaller. In fact, "the frequency of seismic events greater than 3.0 have been trending downward since 1990". Due to the remote location it is very infrequent for humans to feel the effect of this tectonic shake. Typically seismic activity in this area is measured using seismometers that can pick up on micro seismicity down to extremely minute levels.[25] This has been demonstrated to be caused by the water injection process used to produce the geothermal electricity at the power plant.[26]
According to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Earth Sciences division, seismicity was very low prior to the use of the Geyser steam field for geothermal energy, although this may have been the result of low seismic coverage of the area.[27] Before 1969, there were no earthquakes above magnitude 2 recorded by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in an approximately 70 square miles (180 km2) area around the Geysers.[27] Studies have shown that injecting water into the Geysers field produces earthquakes from magnitude 0.5 to 3.0, although a 4.6 occurred in 1973 and magnitude four events increased thereafter.[27] Even with increasing injection rates over time, the rate of magnitude 3 earthquakes has remained relatively unchanged since the 1980s,[27] although the absolute number of earthquakes has increased significantly.[8] A magnitude 4.5 earthquake struck near the Geysers on January 12, 2014 and a magnitude 5.0 on December 14, 2016.[28] A magnitude 3.8 earthquake, with a hypocenter 600 meters directly under the field, struck in the early hours of March 3, 2022.[29] Despite the increases in the number of earthquakes and the fears of local residents, it is unlikely that a large earthquake will occur at the Geysers since there is no fault or fracture nearby.[8]
Geochemistry
In 2005, abatement equipment was installed at two of the Geysers plants to reduce the amount of mercury released by the waste vapor even though the amount released was below the legal limit for such releases.[15] The Geysers Air Monitoring Programs (GAMP) has shown limited releases of arsenic, but again below a significant level.[15]
Production
Power plants at the Geysers are of the dry steam power plant type, where the steam directly powers the generator.[15] In general, the Geysers has 1517 MW[30] of active installed capacity with an average production factor of 63% (955 MW).[31]
Of nearly two dozen active plants in the Geysers in 2014, Calpine Corporation operated 19 plants in 2004[32] but only 15 in 2013.[33] Two other plants are owned jointly by the Northern California Power Agency and the City of Santa Clara[34] In July 2009, AltaRock Energy planned to drill more than 2 miles (3.2 km) down to create an "enhanced geothermal" project which was abandoned when federal agencies asked for review.[8] Another plant was under development by Ram Power Corporation, formerly Western Geopower, in 2010, but after Ram Power lost both its CEO and CFO in 2013, it was seeking a buyer for its Geysers property.[35]
Geology
The Geysers is located on the northeast limb of the Mayacamas anticline, bounded by the Collayomi Fault on the northeast and the Mercuryville Fault on the southwest. The central and eastern Franciscan belts form the core of this anticline. Within this belt is a rock unit forming the reservoir rock, consisting of a sheared and fractured graywacke. A large Bouguer Gravity anomaly combined with slower seismic velocities, located below the Clear Lake Volcanic Field, suggests a magma body is heating the geothermal area.[36]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e "Geysers By The Numbers". geysers.com. Retrieved 2020-02-02.
- ^ a b c d e Brophy, P.; Lippmann, M.; Dobson, P.F.; Poux, B. (2010-10-01). "The Geysers Geothermal Field Update1990/2010". OSTI 1048267. doi:10.2172/1048267. OSTI 1048267. S2CID 129885237.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Electricity Data Browser - List of plants for geothermal, California, all sectors". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 2020-02-02.
- ^ McCarthy, Will (2020-02-06). "The pros and cons of enhanced geothermal energy systems". Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hodgson, Susan F. (2010). A Geysers Album: Five Eras of Geothermal History (PDF). Sacramento: State of California Department of Conservation. pp. 1–81. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ Nabokov, Loendorf, Peter, Lawrence (2004). Restoring a Presence: American Indians and Yellowstone National Park. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 277. ISBN 9780806135892.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lund, John W. (October 1995). "Historical Impacts of Geothermal Resources on the People of North America" (PDF). GeoHeat Center Bulletin.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i The Future of Energy: Earth, Wind and Fire. Scientific American. April 8, 2013. pp. 160–. ISBN 978-1-4668-3386-9. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ "A History of Geothermal Energy in the United States". U.S. Department of Energy. 2010. Archived from the original on September 4, 2007. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
- ^ "Valley Fire Devastates Facilities At The Geysers Geothermal Power Plant". CBS Bay Area. 2015. Retrieved September 16, 2015.
- ^ Chabria, Anita; Dolan, Maura (October 27, 2019). "Blackouts and mass evacuations as Kincade fire grows amid high winds". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 27, 2019.
- ^ Graff, Amy (2019-10-24). "Map: Kincade Fire burning in north Sonoma County". SFGate. Retrieved 2019-11-06.
- ^ "Kincade Fire: Why PG&E is on the hot seat again over latest devastating wildfire". The Mercury News. 2019-10-25. Retrieved 2019-11-06.
- ^ Rintoul, Bill (August 10, 1976). "Kern County oilfields news". The Bakersfield Californian. p. 20.
- ^ a b c d e Kagel, Alyssa; Diana Bates; Karl Gawell. A Guide to Geothermal Energy and the Environment (PDF). Geothermal Energy Association. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ "Calpine Corporation - The Geysers". Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Enedy, Steve; Kathy Enedy; John Maney (1991). Reservoir Response To Injection In The Southeast Geysers (PDF). Sixteenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
- ^ "Cascades Volcanic Observatory (USGS) - Clear Lake Volcanic Field, California". Retrieved May 16, 2007.
- ^ Lund, J. (September 2004), "100 Years of Geothermal Power Production" (PDF), Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin, vol. 25, no. 3, Klamath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology, pp. 11–19, ISSN 0276-1084, retrieved April 13, 2009
- ^ McLarty, Lynn; Reed, Marshall J. (October 1992). "The U.S. Geothermal Industry: Three Decades of Growth" (PDF). Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. 14 (4). London: Taylor & Francis: 443–455. doi:10.1080/00908319208908739. ISSN 1556-7230.
- ^ a b c d e Dellinger, Mark; Eliot Allen (May–June 2004). Geothermal and the Environment Lake County Success: Generating environmental gains with geothermal Power (PDF). Lake County, California.
- ^ "Ormat Technologies Inc. - Press Release". investor.ormat.com. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
- ^ "Ram Power becomes Polaris Infrastructure Inc". Think GeoEnergy - Geothermal Energy News. 15 May 2015. Retrieved 2020-02-18.
- ^ "List of Earthquakes for San Francisco".
- ^ "Seismicity". geysers.com. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
- ^ "Why are there so many earthquakes in the Geysers area in Northern California?".
- ^ a b c d "EGS: The Geysers: What is the history of seismicity at The Geysers?". Induced seismicity. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Earth Sciences Division. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ "M4.5 - 6km NW of The Geysers, California". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ "M 3.8 - 0km WNW of The Geysers, CA". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
- ^ Ronald DiPippo (2008). Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact. Elsevier Science & Technology. ISBN 978-0-7506-8620-4.
- ^ Lund, John W.; Bloomquist, R. Gordon; Boyd, Tonya L.; Renner, Joel (24–29 April 2005), The United States of America Country Update (PDF), Proceedings World Geothermal Congress, Antalya, Turkey, retrieved 2009-11-09
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Ann Chambers (2004). Renewable Energy in Nontechnical Language. PennWell Books. pp. 143–. ISBN 978-1-59370-005-8.
- ^ Wilkison, Brett (November 15, 2013). "Sonoma Clean Power makes deal with Geysers operator". Santa Rosa Press Democrat. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ Baker (January 14, 2007). "Steamy industry may clear the air / Geothermal energy producers try to develop more plants -- and more public awareness". San Francisco Chronicle. Lake County. p. F-1. Retrieved November 11, 2009.
- ^ Davis, Tina (January 28, 2013). "Ram Power CEO and CFO to Depart, Seeks Buyer for Geysers Project". Bloomberg News. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ McLaughlin, Robert (1981). McLaughlin, Robert; Donnelly-Nolan, Julie (eds.). Tectonic Setting of Pre-Tertiary Rocks and Its Relation to Geothermal Resources in the Geysers-Clear Lake Area, in Research in the Geysers-Clear Lake Geothermal Area, Northern California, USGS Professional Paper 1141. Washington: US Government Printing Office. pp. 9–11.
External links
- Jeremy Shere (November 26, 2013). Renewable: The World-Changing Power of Alternative Energy. St. Martin's Press. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-250-03822-7.
- "EGS: Interactive, Real-Time Map of Earthquakes at The Geysers". Induced Seismicity. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Earth Sciences Division. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- A Geysers Album: History of The Geysers Geothermal field (Report). California Department of Conservation. Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources. 1992.
- U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1996. pp. 3–.