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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Portal|Viruses}} |
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* [[2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak]] |
* [[2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak]] |
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* [[2017 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak]] |
* [[2017 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak]] |
Revision as of 20:46, 6 February 2019
Initial case: 1 August 2018 | |
Confirmed cases | 734[1] |
---|---|
Probable cases | 54[1] |
Suspected cases | 191[1] |
Total cases | 979[1] |
Deaths | 486[1] |
The 2018 Kivu Ebola outbreak[note 1] began on 1 August 2018, when it was confirmed that four cases had tested positive for Ebola virus in the eastern region of Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).[3][4][5] The Kivu outbreak included Ituri Province, after the first case was confirmed on 13 August.[2] This outbreak started just days after the end of the 2018 Équateur province Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak.[6][7]
The affected province and general area are currently undergoing a military conflict, which is hindering treatment and prevention efforts. The World Health Organization's Deputy Director-General for Emergency Preparedness and Response has described the combination of military conflict and civilian distress as a potential "perfect storm" that could lead to a rapid worsening of the outbreak.[8][9] Due to the deteriorating situation in North Kivu and surrounding areas the World Health Organization, on 27 September, raised the risk assessment at the national and regional level from "high" to "very high".[10]
On 3 October, the United Nations Security Council stressed that all armed hostility should come to a stop in the DRC, to better fight the ongoing Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak.[11] For the week ending 14 October, DRC indicated 33 cases of EVD were identified, of which 24 died, in one week.[12] On 9 November, at 319 probable and confirmed cases (not counting suspected cases) the 2018 North Kivu and Ituri province Ebola virus outbreak became the biggest in the DRC's history.[13][14]
By 30 November, the 2018 Kivu Ebola outbreak had become the second biggest EVD outbreak in recorded history,[15][16][17] behind only the 2013–2016 West Africa epidemic.
Epidemiology
First cases and transmission
On 1 August 2018, the North Kivu health division notified Congo's health ministry of 26 cases of hemorrhagic fever, including 20 deaths. Four of six samples were sent for analysis to the National Institute of Biological Research in Kinshasa. Four of the six came back positive for Ebola and an outbreak was declared on that date.[18][19] The index case is believed to have been the death and unsafe burial of a 65-year-old woman on July 25 in the town of Mangina; soon afterwards seven members of her immediate family died.[20]
By 3 August, the virus had developed in multiple locations; cases were reported in five health zones – Beni, Butembo, Oicha, Musienene and Mabalako – in North Kivu province and additionally, Mandima and Mambasa in Ituri Province.[21] However, one month later there had been confirmed cases only in the Mabalako, Mandima, Beni and Oicha health zones. The five suspected cases in the Mambasa Health Zone proved not to be EVD; it was not possible to confirm the one probable case in the Musienene Health Zone and the two probable cases in the Butembo health zone. No new cases had been recorded in any of those health zones. The first confirmed case in Butembo was announced on 4 September, the same day that it was announced that one of the cases registered at Beni had actually come from the Kalunguta Health Zone.[22]
The DRC Ministry of Public Health confirmed that the new Ebola outbreak is caused by the Zaire ebolavirus species. This is the same strain that was involved in the early 2018 outbreak in western DRC.[23] Health authorities in the DRC confirmed they would use the ZEBOV vaccine once again.[23]
On 2 August, Oxfam indicated it would be taking part in the response to this latest outbreak in the DRC.[24] On 4 August, the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that the current situation in the DRC, due to several factors, warranted a "high risk assessment" at the national and regional level for public health.[25]
In November it was reported that the EVD outbreak ran across two provinces (and 14 health zones). The table below reflects cases that were not able to have a laboratory test sample prior to burial as probable cases.[27] By 23 December the EVD outbreak had spread to more health zones, and at that time 18 such areas had been affected.[28] The current population in DRC is more than 84,000,000 people.[29]
Table 1.Timeline reported cases[30] | ||||||||
Date | Cases # | Deaths | CFR | Contacts | Sources | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Confirmed | Probable | Suspected | Totals | |||||
2018-08-01† | 4 | 22 | 0 | 26 | 20 | - | - | [31] |
2018-08-03 | 13 | 30 | 33 | 76 | 33 | 76.7%‡ | 879 | [32][33] |
2018-08-05 | 16 | 27 | 31 | 74 | 34 | 79%‡ | 966 | [34][35] |
2018-08-10 | 25 | 27 | 48 | 100 | 39 | 75%‡ | 953 | [36] |
2018-08-12 | 30 | 27 | 58 | 115 | 41 | - | 997 | [37] |
2018-08-17 | 64 | 27 | 12 | 103 | 50 | 55.6%‡ | 1,609 | [38] |
2018-08-20 | 75 | 27 | 9 | 111 | 59 | - | 2,408 | [39] |
2018-08-24 | 83 | 28 | 6 | 117 | 72 | 65%‡ | 3,421 | [40] |
2018-08-26 | 83 | 28 | 10 | 121 | 75 | 67.6%‡ | 2,445 | [41] |
2018-08-31 | 90 | 30 | 8 | 128 | 78 | 65%‡ | 2,462 | [42] |
2018-09-02 | 91 | 31 | 9 | 131 | 82 | - | 2,512 | [43] |
2018-09-07 | 100 | 31 | 14 | 145 | 89 | 68%‡ | 2,426 | [44] |
2018-09-09 | 101 | 31 | 9 | 141 | 91 | - | 2,265 | [45][46] |
2018-09-14 | 106 | 31 | 17 | 154 | 92 | 67.2%‡ | 1,751 | [47] |
2018-09-16 | 111 | 31 | 7 | 149 | 97 | - | 2,173 | [48][49] |
2018-09-21 | 116 | 31 | n/a | 147 | 99 | 67.3%‡ | 1,641 | [50] |
2018-09-23 | 119 | 31 | 9 | 159 | 100 | 67%‡ | 1,836 | [51] |
2018-09-28 | 126 | 31 | 23 | 180 | 102 | 65%‡ | 1,410 | [52] |
2018-10-02 | 130 | 32 | 17 | 179 | 106 | 65.4%‡ | 1,463 | [53] |
2018-10-05 | 142 | 35 | 11 | 188 | 113 | 63.8%‡ | 2,045 | [54] |
2018-10-07 | 146 | 35 | 21 | 202 | 115 | 63.5%‡ | 2,115 | [55] |
2018-10-12 | 176 | 35 | 32 | 243 | 135 | 64%‡ | 2,663 | [56] |
2018-10-15 | 181 | 35 | 32 | 248 | 139 | 64%‡ | 4,707 | [57] |
2018-10-19 | 202 | 35 | 33 | 270 | 153 | 65%‡ | 5,518 | [58] |
2018-10-21 | 203 | 35 | 14 | 252 | 155 | 65%‡ | 5,341 | [59] |
2018-10-26 | 232 | 35 | 43 | 310 | 170 | 64%‡ | 6,026 | [60] |
2018-10-28 | 239 | 35 | 32 | 306 | 174 | 63.5%‡ | 5,991 | [61] |
2018-11-02 | 263 | 35 | 70 | 368 | 186 | 62.4%‡ | 5,036 | [62] |
2018-11-04 | 265 | 35 | 61 | 361 | 186 | 62%‡ | 4,971 | [63] |
2018-11-09 | 294 | 35 | 60 | 389 | 205 | 62%‡ | 4,779 | [64] |
2018-11-11 | 295 | 38 | n/a | 333 | 209 | - | 4,803 | [65] |
2018-11-16 | 319 | 47 | 49 | 415 | 214 | 59%‡ | 4,430 | [66] |
2018-11-21 | 326 | 47 | 90 | 463 | 217 | - | 4,668 | [67] |
2018-11-23 | 365 | 47 | 45 | 457 | 236 | 57%‡ | 4,354 | [68] |
2018-11-26 | 374 | 47 | 74 | 495 | 241 | 57%‡ | 4,767 | [69] |
2018-11-30 | 392 | 48 | 63 | 503 | 255 | 58%‡ | 4,820 | [70] |
2018-12-03 | 405 | 48 | 79 | 532 | 268 | 59%‡ | 5,335 | [71] |
2018-12-07 | 446 | 48 | 95 | 589 | 283 | 57%‡ | 6,417 | [72] |
2018-12-10 | 452 | 48 | n/a | 500 | 289 | 58%‡ | 6,509 | [73] |
2018-12-14 | 483 | 48 | 111 | 642 | 313 | 59%‡ | 6,695 | [74] |
2018-12-21 | 526 | 48 | 118 | 692 | 347 | 60%‡ | 8,422 | [75] |
2018-12-28 | 548 | 48 | 52 | 648 | 361 | 61%‡ | 7,007 | [76] |
2019-01-04 | 575 | 48 | 118 | 741 | 374 | 60%‡ | 5,047 | [77] |
2019-01-11 | 595 | 49 | n/a | 644 | 390 | 61%‡ | 4,937 | [78] |
2019-01-18 | 636 | 49 | 209 | 894 | 416 | 61%‡ | 4,971 | [79][80] |
2019-01-25 | 679 | 54 | 204 | 937 | 459 | 63%‡ | 6,241 | [26][81] |
2019-02-01 | 720 | 54 | 168 | 942 | 481 | 62%‡ | >7,000 | [82][83] |
# numbers are subject to revision both up, when new cases are discovered, and down consequently, when tests show cases were not Ebola-related. |
Transition to large-scale outbreak
The Uganda Ministry of Health has issued an alert for extra surveillance as the neighboring outbreak in the DRC is just 100 kilometres (62 mi) away from its border.[84] On 7 August, the DRC Ministry of Public Health indicated that the total count had climbed to almost 90 cases;[85] two days later, on 9 August, it was nearly 100 cases.[86] On 16 August, the United Kingdom indicated it would help with EVD diagnosis and monitoring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[87] On 17 August, the WHO reported that "contacts" numbered about 1500 individuals, however there could be more in certain conflict zones in the DRC that can not be reached.[88] Some 954 contacts were successfully followed up on 18 August, however, Mandima Health Zone indicated resistance; as a consequence, contacts were not followed up there per the World Health Organization.[38]
On 4 September, Butembo, a city with almost one million people, logged its first fatality in the Ebola outbreak. The city of Butembo, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, has trade links to Uganda, which it borders.[89][22]
On 24 September, it was reported that all contact tracing and vaccinations would stop for the foreseeable future in Beni, due to an attack the day before by rebel groups that left several individuals dead.[90] On 25 September, Peter Salama of the World Health Organization indicated that insecurity is obstructing efforts to stop the virus and believes a combination of factors could establish conditions for an epidemic.[91] On 18 October, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention raised its travelers' alert to the Democratic Republic of the Congo from a level 1 to level 2 for all U.S. travelers.[92] On 26 October, the World Health Organization indicated that half of confirmed cases were not showing any fever symptom, thus making diagnosis more difficult.[60]
On 6 November, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated that the current outbreak in the east region of the DRC may not be containable due to several factors. This would be the first time since 1976 that an outbreak has not been able to be curbed.[93] Due to various situations surrounding the current EVD outbreak, WHO indicated on 13 November, that the viral outbreak would last at least 6 months.[94]
On 23 November it was reported that due to a steady increase in cases, it is expected that the current EVD outbreak in DRC will overtake the Uganda 2000 outbreak of 425 total cases, to become the second biggest EVD outbreak behind only the West Africa Ebola virus epidemic.[95][16] According to the current available statistics, women are being infected at a higher rate, 60%, than their male counterparts due to the EVD outbreak, a report issued 4 December indicated.[96]
On 29 December the DRC Ministry of Public Health declared "0 new confirmed cases detected because of the paralysis of the activities of the response in Beni, Butembo, Komanda and Mabalako" and no vaccination has occurred for three consecutive days.[97] On 22 January the total case count began to approach 1,000 cases, (951 suspected, probable, confirmed) in the DRC Ministry of Public Health situation report.[98]
Countries with medically evacuated individuals
On 29 December, an American physician that was exposed to the Ebola virus (and who was non-symptomatic) was evacuated, and taken to the University of Nebraska Medical Center.[99][100] On 12 January, the individual was released after 21 days without symptoms.[101]
Bordering countries
On 11 August, a UN agency indicated that steps were being taken to assure that those leaving the DRC into Uganda are not infected with Ebola; this is being done via active screening.[2][102] On 13 August, the DRC reported a total of 115 cases of the virus within its borders so far.[2][102] Three individuals in Uganda that were suspected of contracting the virus were tested, with negative results.[103]
On 22 August, it was reported that the government of Uganda had opened two Ebola treatment centers at the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, though there are as yet no confirmed cases in the country of Uganda.[104][105]
According to the International Red Cross, a 'most likely scenario' entails an asymptomatic case will at some point enter the country of Uganda undetected among the numerous refugees coming from the DRC.[106] On 20 September Uganda indicated it was ready for immediate vaccination, should the Ebola virus be detected in any individual.[107][108]
On 21 September, officials of the Democratic Republic of the Congo indicated a confirmed case of EVD at Lake Albert, an entry point into Uganda, though no case has been confirmed within Ugandan territory.[109][110]
On 2 November, it was reported that the Ugandan government would start vaccination of health workers along the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo as a proactive measure against the virus.[111] Other countries that border the Democratic Republic of the Congo are South Sudan and Rwanda.[112] On 2 January 2019 it was reported that refugee movement from the DRC to Uganda had increased after the presidential elections.[113]
Containment and military conflict
The area in question, North Kivu, is also currently in the middle of the Kivu Conflict, a military conflict with thousands of displaced refugees.[114][115] The affected area has about one million uprooted people and shares borders with Rwanda and Uganda, with cross border movement because of trade activities. The humanitarian crisis and deterioration of the security situation is expected to affect any response to the outbreak.[116][117] The DRC is expected to hold presidential elections at the end of this year.[118]
There are about 70 armed military groups, among them the Alliance of Patriots for a Free and Sovereign Congo and the Mai-Mayi Nduma défense du Congo-Rénové, in North Kivu. The armed fighting has apparently displaced thousands of individuals.[119] According to WHO, health care workers will be accompanied by military personnel for protection; additionally, ring vaccination may not be possible.[120] On 11 August, it was reported that seven individuals were killed in Mayi-Moya due to a military group, about 24 miles from Beni where there are several EVD cases.[121][122] The WHO is asking for safe passage to those areas that are within conflict zones, so that possible EVD cases may be found.[123]
On 24 August, it was reported that an Ebola-stricken physician had been in contact with some 97 individuals in an inaccessible military area, hence those 97 contacts could not be diagnosed.[124][125]
On 4 September, it was reported that on the outskirts of the city of Beni (one of the areas affected by the EVD outbreak) 2 peacekeepers were attacked and wounded by rebel groups in the area which is part of a larger military conflict.[126] On 23 September, it was reported that 14 individuals were killed in a military attack in the city of Beni, which is an area affected by the current EVD outbreak.[127] In September 2018, the World Health Organization's Deputy Director-General for Emergency Preparedness and Response described the combination of military conflict and civilian distress as a potential "perfect storm" that could lead to a rapid worsening of the outbreak.[8][9] On 5 October, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Denis Mukwege, who tends to the female victims of the ongoing internal armed conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[128]
On 20 October, an armed rebel group in the DRC killed some 13 civilians and took 12 children as hostages. This attack occurred in Beni, the current epicenter of the outbreak.[129][130] On 11 November, six people were killed in an attack by an armed rebel group in Beni; as a consequence vaccinations were suspended there.[131][132] A recent position paper by a 'think tank' on the violence and health problem (EVD outbreak) indicates the situation in the DRC may get worse depending on the result and response of presidential elections in the country in 2018.[133] Yet another attack reported on 17 November, in Beni by an armed rebel group forced the cessation of EVD containment efforts and WHO staff to evacuate to another city in Democratic Republic of the Congo for the time being.[134] Beni continues to be the site of attacks by militant groups as 18 civilians were killed on 6 December, according to a report[135] On 22 December it was reported that elections for president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo would go forward despite the EVD outbreak, including in the Ebola-stricken area of Beni.[136] Four days later, on 26 December, the DRC government reversed itself to indicate those Ebola-stricken areas, such as Beni, would not vote for several months;[137] as a consequence election protesters ransacked an Ebola assessment center in Beni just 24 hours later.[138][139][140] Post election tensions continued when it was reported that the DRC government had cut-off internet connections for the population, as the vote results were yet to be released.[141]
On 29 December, Oxfam said it would suspend its work due to the ongoing violence in the DRC;[142] on the same day, the International Rescue Committee suspended their Ebola support efforts as well.[143]
On 18 January the African Union indicated that presidential election results announcements should be suspended in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and have furthermore decided not to travel to the DRC.[144]
Virology
Zaire ebolavirus strain is the most lethal of the six known strains (including the newly discovered Bombali strain);[145] it is fatal in up to 90% of cases.[146] Both Ebola and Marburg virus are part of the Filoviridae family.[147]
The filovirus genome contains seven genes, including VP40.[148] The natural reservoir of the virus is thought to be the African fruit bat,[149] which is used in many parts of Africa as bushmeat.[150]
Viral mechanism
A significant part of the actual EVD infection is based on immune suppression. When an individual is infected the pathophysiological process indicates that as systemic inflammation sets in there are coagulation problems, as well as vascular and the aforementioned immune system issues.[151]
Treatment
On 27 August, the World Health Organization evaluated the benefits and risks of drug treatment for EVD: Remdesivir, ZMapp, REGN3470-3471-3479, mAb114 and favipiravir.[152] mAb114 (which is a monoclonal antibody) is being used for the first time to treat infected individuals during this EVD outbreak.[153] An alternative treatment of ZMapp has not been used because it requires storage at −20 °C (−4 °F).[2]
On 25 November, the Democratic Republic of the Congo gave approval to start clinical trials for Ebola (EVD) treatment. Medical authorities will not choose which of the four experimental treatments will be given to an individual; instead it will be randomized.[154]
Vaccination
On 8 August, the process of vaccination began with rVSV-ZEBOV Ebola vaccine.[156] While several studies have shown the vaccine to be safe and protective against the virus, additional research is needed before it can be licensed. Consequently, the WHO reports that it is being used under a ring vaccination strategy with what is known as “compassionate use” to protect persons at highest risk of the Ebola outbreak.[157]
Pregnant and lactating women
Based on a lack of evidence about the safety of the vaccine during pregnancy, the DRC ministry of health and the WHO decided to not vaccinate women who are pregnant or lactating. This decision has been criticized as "utterly indefensible" from an ethical perspective by some authorities. They note that as caregivers of the sick, pregnant and lactating women are more likely to contact Ebola. They also note that since it is known that almost 100% of pregnant women who contact Ebola will die, a safety concern should not be a deciding factor.[158]
Vaccine stockpile
The Democratic Republic of the Congo Ministry of Public Health reported on 16 August that 316 individuals had been vaccinated.[159] On 24 August, the DRC indicated it had vaccinated 2,957 individuals, including 1,422 in Mabalako against the Ebola virus.[160] By late October more than 20,000 individuals had been vaccinated.[161] In December Dr Peter Salama, who is Deputy Director-General of Emergency Preparedness and Response for WHO, reported that the current 300,000 vaccine stockpile may not be enough to contain this EVD outbreak; additionally it takes several months to make more of the Zaire EVD vaccine (rVSV-ZEBOV).[162][163] On 11 December it was reported that the stock of vaccine in Beni was 4,290 doses.[26]
Treatment centres
On 14 August, it was reported that the Mangina Ebola Treatment Center was now operational.[164][165] A fourth Ebola Treatment Center (after those in Mangina, Beni and Butembo) was inaugurated on 18 September in Makeke in the Mandima Health Zone of Ituri Province.[166] Makeke is less than five kilometers from Mangina along a well-traveled local road; the site had been proposed in August when it appeared that a second ETC would be needed in the area, and space was insufficient in Mangina itself to accommodate one.[167] By mid-September, however, there had been only two additional cases in the Mandima Health Zone, and only sporadic cases were being reported in the Mabalako Health Zone.[168]
Healthcare workers
Health workers must don PPE for protection during treatment of those affected by the virus, as well as various other tasks.[169] On 3 September, WHO stated that 16 health workers had contracted the virus.[43]
As of 10 December, the WHO reported that the current DRC outbreak had affected 49 healthcare workers as confirmed cases, and 15 had died.[73]
Prognosis
In terms of prognosis, aside from the possible effects of post-Ebola syndrome,[170] there is also the reality of survivors returning to communities where they might be shunned due to the fear many have in the respective areas of the Ebola virus,[171][172] hence psychosocial assistance is needed.[173]
Post-Ebola syndrome signs and symptoms in an individual may include, but are not limited to the following:[174][175]
- Joint pain
- Muscle pain
- Chest pain
- Hearing loss
- Hair loss
- Memory problems
- Anxiety attacks
- Vision loss
History
The Ebola virus disease outbreak in Zaire (Yambuku) started in late 1976, and was the second outbreak ever after the earlier one in Sudan the same year.[176][177] On 1 August 2018, the tenth Ebola outbreak was declared in the Democratic Republic of Congo, only a few days after the prior outbreak in the same country had been declared over on 24 July.[6][7]
World Health Organization chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus indicated on 15 August that the current outbreak in DRC may be worse than the West Africa outbreak of 2013–2016,[178] due to several factors.[179]
The table below indicates the ten outbreaks that have occurred in the Democratic Republic of the Congo since 1976:
- Table 2.
Date | Country | Major location | Outbreak information | Source | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strain | Cases | Deaths | CFR | ||||
Aug 1976 | Zaire | Yambuku | EBOV | 318 | 280 | 88% | [180] |
Jun 1977 | Zaire | Tandala | EBOV | 1 | 1 | 100% | [181][182] |
May–Jul 1995 | Zaire | Kikwit | EBOV | 315 | 254 | 81% | [183] |
Aug–Nov 2007 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Kasai-Occidental | EBOV | 264 | 187 | 71% | [184] |
Dec 2008–Feb 2009 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Kasai-Occidental | EBOV | 32 | 14 | 45% | [185] |
Jun–Nov 2012 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Orientale | BDBV | 77 | 36 | 47% | [181] |
Aug–Nov 2014 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Tshuapa | EBOV | 66 | 49 | 74% | [186] |
May–Jul 2017 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Likati | EBOV | 8 | 4 | 50% | [187] |
Apr–Jul 2018 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Équateur Province | EBOV | 54 | 33 | 61% | [188] |
Aug 2018–June 2020 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Kivu | EBOV | 3,470 | 2,280 | 66% | [189] |
June–Nov 2020 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Équateur Province | EBOV | 130 | 55 | 42% | [190] |
Feb 2021–May 2021 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | North Kivu | EBOV | 12 | 6 | 50% | [191] |
April 2022 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Équateur Province | EBOV | 5 | 5 | 100% | [192][193] |
August 2022 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | North Kivu | EBOV | 1 | 1 | 100% | [194] |
This map and graph also show previous EVD outbreaks in the area of central Africa, which includes the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The graph is interim as total cases and deaths number may increase as the outbreak expands.[13] This current outbreak is the biggest of the ten recorded outbreaks that have occurred in the DRC.[195]
See also
- 2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak
- 2017 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak
- Filoviridae
- Haemorrhagic fever
- rVSV-ZEBOV vaccine
Notes
References
- ^ a b c d e "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans les provinces du Nord Kivu et de l'Ituri au Mardi 5 février 2019". us13.campaign-archive.com. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
- ^ a b c d e "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans la province du Nord Kivu au Lundi 13 août 2018". mailchi.mp. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
- ^ Editorial, Reuters (August 2018). "Congo declares new Ebola outbreak in eastern province". Reuters. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
{{cite news}}
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has generic name (help) - ^ "Congo announces 4 new Ebola cases in North Kivu province". Washington Post. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ^ "Cluster of presumptive Ebola cases in North Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- ^ a b "Media Advisory: Expected end of Ebola outbreak". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ^ a b Weber, Lauren (1 August 2018). "New Ebola Outbreak Confirmed In Democratic Republic Of Congo". Huffington Post. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ^ a b Belluz, Julia (25 September 2018). "An Ebola "perfect storm" is brewing in Democratic Republic of the Congo". Vox. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
- ^ a b "Ebola-hit DRC faces 'perfect storm' as uptick in violence halts WHO operation - Democratic Republic of the Congo". ReliefWeb. 25 September 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
- ^ "Ebola virus disease – Democratic Republic of the Congo". World Health Organization. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
- ^ "UN calls for end to Congo fighting to combat Ebola outbreak". Washington Post. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
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{{cite news}}
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has generic name (help) - ^ a b c "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans les provinces du Nord Kivu et de l'Ituri au Vendredi 9 novembre 2018". mailchi.mp. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ "Current Ebola Outbreak Is Worst in Congo's History: Ministry". usnews.com. Us News and World report. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
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- ^ a b "Operations Dashboard for ArcGIS". who.maps.arcgis.com. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
- ^ a b Weber, Lauren (29 November 2018). "The Ebola Outbreak In Congo Just Became The Second Largest Ever". Huffington Post. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ Press, Saleh Mwanamilongo, Associated. "Congo announces 4 new Ebola cases in North Kivu province". Retrieved 5 August 2018.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak – Epidemiological Situation DG ECHO Daily Map | 3 August 2018". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
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- ^ "UNICEF DR Congo (North Kivu) Ebola Situation Report #1 - 3 August 2018". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
- ^ a b "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans la province du Nord Kivu au Mercredi 5 septembre 2018 (ERRATUM)". mailchi.mp. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ a b "Updated: Deadly Ebola surfaces in Africa's center yet again". Science | AAAS. 1 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- ^ "Oxfam responds to the new Ebola Outbreak in Beni, North Kivu, DRC". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- ^ "Ebola virus disease – Democratic Republic of the Congo". World Health Organization. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
- ^ a b c "Outbreaks and Emergencies Bulletin, Week 04: 19 - 25 January 2019". WHO | Regional Office for Africa. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
- ^ "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans les provinces du Nord Kivu et de l'Ituri au Samedi 10 novembre 2018". mailchi.mp. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
- ^ "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans les provinces du Nord Kivu et de l'Ituri au Dimanche 23 décembre 2018". us13.campaign-archive.com. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
- ^ "World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations". population.un.org. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
- ^ a b "WHO | World Health Organization". www.who.int. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
- ^ "EBOLA RDC - Communication spéciale du Ministre de la Santé en rapport à la situation épidémiologique dans la Province du Nord-Kivu". mailchi.mp. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
- ^ "WHO AFRO Outbreaks and Other Emergencies, Week 31: 28 July - 3 August (Data as reported by 17:00; 3 August 2018)". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
- ^ "EBOLA RDC - Evolution de la riposte contre l'épidémie d'Ebola dans la province du Nord Kivu au Samedi 4 août 2018". mailchi.mp. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ "Democratic Republic of Congo: Ebola Virus Disease - External Situation Report 1". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
- ^ News, ABC. "Congo's health ministry confirms 3 more cases of Ebola". ABC News. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
{{cite web}}
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Further reading
- Dokubo, Emily Kainne; Wendland, Annika; Mate, Suzanne E.; Ladner, Jason T.; Hamblion, Esther L.; Raftery, Philomena; Blackley, David J.; Laney, A. Scott; Mahmoud, Nuha; Wayne-Davies, Gloria; Hensley, Lisa; Stavale, Eric; Fakoli, Lawrence; Gregory, Christopher; Chen, Tai-Ho; Koryon, Augustine; Roth Allen, Denise; Mann, Jennifer; Hickey, Andrew; Saindon, John; Badini, Mehboob; Baller, April; Clement, Peter; Bolay, Fatorma; Wapoe, Yatta; Wiley, Michael R.; Logue, James; Dighero-Kemp, Bonnie; Higgs, Elizabeth; Gasasira, Alex; Williams, Desmond E.; Dahn, Bernice; Kateh, Francis; Nyenswah, Tolbert; Palacios, Gustavo; Fallah, Mosoka P. (23 July 2018). "Persistence of Ebola virus after the end of widespread transmission in Liberia: an outbreak report". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 18 (9): 1015–1024. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30417-1. ISSN 1474-4457. PMID 30049622.
- Nanclares, Carolina; Kapetshi, Jimmy; et al. (2016). "Ebola Virus Disease, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2014". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22 (9): 1579–1586. doi:10.3201/eid2209.160354. ISSN 1080-6040. PMC 4994351. PMID 27533284.
- Claude, Kasereka Masumbuko; Underschultz, Jack; Hawkes, Michael T (October 2018). "Ebola virus epidemic in war-torn eastern DR Congo". The Lancet. 0 (10156): 1399–1401. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32419-X. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 30297137. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- "Experimental Ebola vaccines elicit year-long immune response/NIH reports final data from large clinical trial in West Africa". National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH.gov. 11 October 2017.
- Kuhn, Jens H.; et al. (24 November 2014). "Nomenclature- and Database-Compatible Names for the Two Ebola Virus Variants that Emerged in Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2014". Viruses. 6 (11): 4760–4799. doi:10.3390/v6114760. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 4246247. PMID 25421896.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - Jones-Konneh, Tracey Elizabeth Claire; Suda, Tomomi; Sasaki, Hiroyuki; Egawa, Shinichi (2018). "Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation of Nosocomial Infection among Healthcare Workers during Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak in Sierra Leone". The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 245 (4): 231–238. doi:10.1620/tjem.245.231. ISSN 1349-3329. PMID 30078788.
- "International travel and health". World Health Organization. WHO. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
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: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - Cousins, Sophie (October 2018). "Violence and community mistrust hamper Ebola response". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 0 (12): 1314–1315. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30658-3. ISSN 1473-3099. PMID 30385158. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
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External links
- World Health Organization Democratic Republic of the Congo crisis information
- World Health Organization Ebola situation reports
- "Ebola outbreak: timeline". Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders. 13 September 2016.
Video
- "Donning PPE: Perform Hand Hygiene Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) | Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
- "Contact tracing/U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention". cdc.gov. Retrieved 15 September 2018.