![Photo of shark in profile surrounded by other, much smaller fish](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Whale_shark_Georgia_aquarium.jpg/300px-Whale_shark_Georgia_aquarium.jpg)
Threatened sharks are those vulnerable to endangerment (extinction) in the near future. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world's oldest global environmental organization.[2] It evaluates threatened species, and treats threatened species not as a single category, but as a group of three categories, depending on the degree to which they are threatened:[3]
The term threatened strictly refers to these three categories (critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable), while vulnerable is used to refer to the least at risk of these categories.[3] The terms can be used somewhat interchangeably, as all vulnerable species are threatened, all endangered species are vulnerable and threatened, and all critically endangered species are endangered, vulnerable and threatened. Threatened species are also referred to as a red-listed species, as they are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[4]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Scalloped_hammerhead_cocos.jpg/220px-Scalloped_hammerhead_cocos.jpg)
Shark species are increasingly becoming threatened because of commercial and recreational fishing pressures, the impact of non-shark fisheries on the seabed and shark prey species, and other habitat alterations such as damage and loss from coastal development and marine pollution.[6] Rising demands for shark products has increased pressure on shark fisheries, but little monitoring or management occurs of most fisheries.[7] Major declines in shark stocks have been recorded over the past few decades; some species had declined over 90% and population declines of 70% were not unusual by 1998.[8] In particular, harvesting young sharks before they reproduce severely impacts future populations. Sharks generally reach sexual maturity only after many years and produce few offspring in comparison to other fish species.[9]
Conservationists estimate that up to 100 million sharks are killed by commercial and recreational fishing every year.[10][11] Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup, which some Asian countries regard as a status symbol.[12] Fishermen capture live sharks, fin them, and dump the finless animal back into the water to die from suffocation or predators.[11][13] Sharks are also killed for their flesh in Europe and elsewhere.[14] The 2007 film Sharkwater documents ways in which sharks are being hunted to extinction.[15] In 2009, the IUCN Shark Specialist Group reported on the conservation status of pelagic (open water) sharks and rays. They found that over half the pelagic sharks targeted by high-seas fisheries were threatened with extinction.[16][17][18]
In 2010, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) rejected proposals from the United States and Palau that would have required countries to strictly regulate trade in several species of hammerhead, oceanic whitetip and dogfish sharks. The majority, but not the required two-thirds of voting delegates, approved the proposal. China, by far the world's largest shark consumer, and Japan, which battles all attempts to extend the convention's protections to marine species, led the opposition.[19][20]
In 2013, CITES member nations overcame the continued opposition led by China and Japan,[21] and reversed course.[22][23] In what CITES has called a "milestone", the oceanic whitetip, porbeagle, and three species of hammerheads will now join the great white, basking and whale shark on CITES Appendix II, effective September 2014.[24] International trade of these species is thus prohibited without CITES permits, "... and evidence will have to be provided that they are harvested sustainably and legally."[5]
In 2014 the state government of Western Australia led by Premier Colin Barnett implemented a policy of killing large sharks. The policy is intended to protect users of the marine environment from shark attack following the deaths of seven people on the Western Australian coastline in the years 2010 to 2013.[25] Baited drum lines are deployed near popular beaches using hooks designed to catch the vulnerable great white shark, as well as bull and tiger sharks. Large sharks found hooked but still alive are shot and their bodies discarded at sea.[26] The government claims they are not culling sharks, but are using a "targeted, localised, hazard mitigation strategy".[27] Barnett has described opposition to killing the sharks as "ludicrous" and "extreme", and said that nothing can change his mind.[28]
According to a 2021 study published in the journal Nature, relative fishing pressure in the oceans has increased by a factor of 18 since 1970.[29] This overfishing has resulted in the number of oceanic sharks and rays declining globally by 71%, and has increased the global extinction risk to the point where three-quarters of these species are now threatened with extinction. Precautionary science-based catch limits and strict prohibitions are now needed urgently if population collapse is to be avoided,[30][31] if the disruption of ecological functions is to be averted,[32] and if a start is to be made on rebuilding global fisheries.[33][29]
List
See also
References
- ^ Hoffmann M, C Hilton-Taylor and 173 others (2010) "The impact of conservation on the status of the world's vertebrates" Science, 330: 1503–1509. doi:10.1126/science.1194442
- ^ International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
- ^ a b "Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria" (PDF). IUCN. August 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2012.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Red List Overview". IUCN Red List. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
- ^ a b CITES conference takes decisive action to halt decline of tropical timber, sharks, manta rays and a wide range of other plants and animals
- ^ "The Greatest Threats to Sharks". Oceana. 2007. Archived from the original on 3 June 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- ^ Pratt, H. L. Jr; Gruber, S. H.; Taniuchi, T (1990). Elasmobranchs as living resources: Advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech Rept.
- ^ Walker, T.I. (1998). Shark Fisheries Management and Biology.
- ^ Sharks Falling Prey To Humans' Appetites National Geographic, 28 October 2010.
- ^ HowStuffWorks "How many sharks are killed recreationally each year - and why?". Animals.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-16.
- ^ a b "Shark fin soup alters an ecosystem—CNN.com". CNN. 15 December 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
- ^ Urbina, Ian (17 February 2016). "Palau vs. the Poachers (Published 2016)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 August 2008. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Shark fisheries and trade in Europe: Fact sheet on Italy". Retrieved 6 September 2007.
- ^ Sharkwater | Movies. EW.com (2007-10-31). Retrieved on 2010-09-16.
- ^ Third of open ocean sharks threatened with extinction IUCN, 25 June 2009.
- ^ Camhi, M.D; Valenti, S.V.; Fordham, S.V.; Fowler, S.L.; Gibson, C., eds. (February 2007). "The Conservation Status of Pelagic Sharks and Rays" (PDF). Pelagic Shark Red List Workshop. Oxford, England: IUCN Shark Specialist Group. ISBN 978-0-9561063-1-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
- ^ Jha, Alok (25 June 2009). "Fishing puts a third of all oceanic shark species at risk of extinction". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 July 2009.
- ^ Jolly, David (23 March 2010). "U.N. Group Rejects Shark Protections". The New York Times.
- ^ "Qatar. UN body flip-flops on shark protection". Tawa News, Canwest News Service. 26 March 2010. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010.
- ^ Opponents fail to overturn shark protection deal Dow Jones Newswires, 14 March 2013.
- ^ Five shark species win protection against finning trade The Guardian, 11 March 2013.
- ^ CITES Makes Historic Decision to Protect Sharks and Rays ScienceDaily, 14 March 2013.
- ^ a b "Appendices I, II and III". CITES. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
- ^ "New measures to combat WA shark risks". Department of Fisheries, Western Australia. 10 December 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ Arup, Tom (21 January 2014), "Greg Hunt grants WA exemption for shark cull plan", The Sydney Morning Herald, Fairfax Media, archived from the original on 22 January 2014
- ^ "Can governments protect people from killer sharks?". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 22 December 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ Australia shark policy to stay, despite threats TVNZ, 20 January 2014.
- ^ a b Pacoureau, Nathan; Rigby, Cassandra L.; Kyne, Peter M.; Sherley, Richard B.; Winker, Henning; Carlson, John K.; Fordham, Sonja V.; Barreto, Rodrigo; Fernando, Daniel; Francis, Malcolm P.; Jabado, Rima W.; Herman, Katelyn B.; Liu, Kwang-Ming; Marshall, Andrea D.; Pollom, Riley A.; Romanov, Evgeny V.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Yin, Jamie S.; Kindsvater, Holly K.; Dulvy, Nicholas K. (2021). "Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays". Nature. 589 (7843): 567–571. Bibcode:2021Natur.589..567P. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9. hdl:10871/124531. PMID 33505035. S2CID 231723355.
- ^ Davidson, Lindsay N K.; Krawchuk, Meg A.; Dulvy, Nicholas K. (2016). "Why have global shark and ray landings declined: Improved management or overfishing?". Fish and Fisheries. 17 (2): 438–458. doi:10.1111/faf.12119.
- ^ Dulvy, Nicholas K.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Davidson, Lindsay N.K.; Fordham, Sonja V.; Bräutigam, Amie; Sant, Glenn; Welch, David J. (2017). "Challenges and Priorities in Shark and Ray Conservation". Current Biology. 27 (11): R565–R572. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.038. PMID 28586694. S2CID 20632998.
- ^ Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Dulvy, Nicholas K. (2017). "Bright spots of sustainable shark fishing". Current Biology. 27 (3): R97–R98. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.017. PMID 28171764. S2CID 46839247.
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{{cite journal}}
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{{cite journal}}
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{{cite journal}}
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Further reading
- FAO (2000) Conservation and Management of Sharks Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, Rome. ISBN 92-5-104514-3.
- Fowler SL, Cavanagh RD, Camhi M, Burgess GH, Cailliet GM, Fordham SV, Simpfendorfer CA and Musick JA (comp. and ed.) (2005) Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes IUCN Shark Specialist Group, Status Survey. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.
- Musick, John A and Bonfil, Ramón (2005) Management techniques for elasmobranch fisheries Fisheries Technical Paper 474, FAO, Rome.
- Teutscher, Frans (2004) "Sharks (Chondrichthyes)" In: World markets and industry of selected commercially-exploited aquatic species with an international conservation profile, Camillo Catarci. Fisheries Circular 990, FAO
- Vannuccini, Stefania (2002) Shark Utilization, Marketing and Trade Fisheries Technical paper 389, FAO, Rome. ISBN 92-5-104361-2.
- Endangered and Threatened Species Under NMFS’ Jurisdiction National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. Updated: 28 February 28, 2013.