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CamelCase (camel case) or medial capitals is the practice of writing compound words or phrases such that each word or abbreviation begins with a capital letter. Camel case may start with a capital or, especially in programming languages, with a lowercase letter.[1] Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone.
Contents
Variations and synonyms
Although the first letter of a camel case compound word may or may not be capitalized, the term camel case generally implies lowercase first letter.[2][3] For clarity, this article calls the two alternatives upper camel case and lower camel case. Some people and organizations use the term camel case only for lower camel case. Other synonyms include:
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StudlyCaps encompasses all such variations,[4] and more, including even random mixed capitalization, as in MiXeD CaPitALiZaTioN (typically a stereotyped allusion to online culture).
Camel case is also distinct from title case, which is traditionally used for book titles and headlines. Title case capitalizes most of the words yet retains the spaces between the words.[18][19][20] Camel case is also distinct from Tall Man lettering, which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking words.
History
Chemical formulae
The first systematic and widespread use of medial capitals for technical purposes was the notation for chemical formulae invented by the Swedish chemist Berzelius in 1813. To replace the multitude of naming and symbol conventions used by chemists until that time, he proposed to indicate each chemical element by a symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized. The capitalization allowed formulae like 'NaCl' to be written without spaces and still be parsed without ambiguity.[21][22]
Berzelius's system remains in use to this day, augmented with three-letter symbols like 'Uut' for unnamed elements and abbreviations for some common substituents (especially in the field of organic chemistry, for instance 'Et' for 'ethyl-'). This has been further extended to describe the amino acid sequences of proteins and other similar domains.
The King's English
In their English style guide The King's English, first published in 1906, H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler suggested that medial capitals could be used in triple compound words where hyphens would cause ambiguity—the examples they give are "KingMark-like" (as against "King Mark-like") and "Anglo-SouthAmerican" (as against "Anglo-South American"). However, they described the system as "too hopelessly contrary to use at present."[23]
Early use in trademarks
Since the early 20th century, medial capitals have occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as
- DryIce Corporation (1925) marketed the solid form of CO2 as "Dry ice", thus leading to its common name.[24]
- CinemaScope and VistaVision, rival widescreen movie formats (1953)
- ShopKo (1962)
- MisterRogers, the Canadian version of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1962)[25]
- AstroTurf (1967)
- ConAgra, formerly Consolidated Mills (1971).
Computer programming
In the 1970s and 1980s, medial capitals were adopted as a standard or alternative naming convention for multi-word identifiers in several programming languages. The origin of this convention has not yet been settled. However, a 1954 conference proceedings[26] informally referred to IBM's Speedcoding system as "SpeedCo". Christopher Strachey's paper on GPM (1965),[27] shows a program that includes some medial capital identifiers, including "NextCh" and "WriteSymbol".
Background: multi-word identifiers
Computer programmers often need to write descriptive (hence multi-word) identifiers, like "end of file" or "char table", in order to improve the readability of their code. However, most popular programming languages forbid the use of spaces inside identifiers, since they are interpreted as delimiters between tokens. The alternative of writing the words together as in "endoffile" or "chartable" is not satisfactory, since the word boundaries may be quite difficult to discern in the result or it may even be misleading (e.g. "chartable" may be used to mean that something can be displayed in a chart).
Some early programming languages, notably Lisp (1958) and COBOL (1959), addressed this problem by allowing a hyphen ("-") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in "END-OF-FILE"—Lisp because it worked well with prefix notation; a Lisp parser would not treat a hyphen in the middle of a symbol as a subtraction operator; COBOL because its operators were English words. However, this solution was not adequate for algebra-oriented languages such as FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), which used the hyphen as an intuitively obvious subtraction operator. (FORTRAN also restricted identifiers to six characters or fewer at the time, preventing multi-word identifiers except those made of very short words.) Since the common punched card character sets of the time had no lower-case letters and no other special character that would be adequate for the purpose, those early languages had to do without multi-word identifiers.
It was only in the late 1960s that the widespread adoption of the ASCII character set made both lower case and the underscore character "_" universally available. Some languages, notably C, promptly adopted underscores as word separators; and underscore-separated compounds like "end_of_file" are still prevalent in C programs and libraries. However, some languages and programmers chose to avoid underscores, among other reasons to prevent confusing them with whitespace, and adopted camel case instead. Two accounts are commonly given for the origin of this convention.
"Lazy programmer" theory
One theory for the origin of the camel case convention holds that C programmers and hackers simply found it more convenient than the snake case style.
The underscore key is inconveniently placed on American QWERTY keyboards. Furthermore, early compilers severely restricted the length of identifiers (e.g., to 8 or 14 letters) or silently truncated all identifiers to that length (for example, FORTRAN 77 limited identifiers to 6 characters; even in C99, characters after the first 31 could be ignored.[28] Finally, the small size of computer displays available in the 1970s (e.g., 80-character by 24-line VT52 and similar terminals) encouraged the use of short identifiers. Some programmers opted to use camel case instead of underscores to get legible compound names with fewer keystrokes and fewer characters.
"Alto Keyboard" theory
Another account claims that the camel case style first became popular at Xerox PARC around 1978, with the Mesa programming language developed for the Xerox Alto computer. This machine lacked an underscore key, and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving camel case as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names. The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for Upper- and lowerCamelCase that was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system.
The Smalltalk language, which was developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early 1980s, may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Camel case was also used by convention for many names in the PostScript page description language (invented by Adobe Systems founder and ex-PARC scientist John Warnock), as well as for the language itself. A further boost was provided by Niklaus Wirth (the inventor of Pascal) who acquired a taste for camel case during a sabbatical at PARC and used it in Modula, his next programming language.
Spread to mainstream usage
Whatever its origins within the computing world, the practice spread in the 1980s and 1990s, when the advent of the personal computer exposed hacker culture to the world. Camel case then became fashionable for corporate trade names, initially in technical fields; mainstream usage was well established by 1990:
- (1962) PolyGram, formerly one of the major labels of the music industry.
- (1971) AeroVironment
- (1976) InterCity 125
- (1977) CompuServe, UnitedHealthCare (now UnitedHealthcare).[29]
- (1978) WordStar
- (1979) MasterCard, SportsCenter, VisiCalc
- (1980) EchoStar
- (1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect
- (1983) NetWare
- (1984) BellSouth, LaserJet, MacWorks, iDEN
- (1985) PageMaker, EastEnders
- (1986) SpaceCamp
- (1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint
- (1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac, iconic WorldWideWeb
During the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for "electronic") and "i" (for "Internet",[30] "information", "intelligent", etc.) became quite common, giving rise to names like Apple's iMac and the eBox software platform.
In 1998, Dave Yost suggested that chemists use medial capitals to aid readability of long chemical names, e.g. write AmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferase instead of amidophosphoribosyltransferase.[31] This usage was still rare in 2012.
The practice is sometimes used for abbreviated names of certain neighborhoods, e.g. New York City neighborhoods SoHo (South of Houston Street) and TriBeCa (Triangle Below Canal Street) and San Francisco's SoMa (South of Market). Such usages erode quickly, so the neighborhoods are now rendered as Soho, Tribeca, and Soma.
Internal capitalization has also been used for other technical codes like HeLa (1983).
History of the name "camel case"
The original name of the practice, used in media studies, grammars and the Oxford English Dictionary, was "medial capitals". The fancier names such as "InterCaps", "CamelCase" and variations thereof are relatively recent and seem more common in computer-related communities.
The earliest known occurrence of the term "InterCaps" on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport,[8] with "BiCapitalization" appearing slightly later in a 1991 post by Eric S. Raymond to the same group.[32] The earliest use of the name "CamelCase" occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love.[33] "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years," said Love, "The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET."[34]
The name "CamelCase" is not related to the "Camel Book" (Programming Perl), which uses all-lowercase identifiers with underscores in its sample code. However, in Perl programming CamelCase is also commonly used.
Current usage in computing
Programming and coding
The use of medial caps for compound identifiers is recommended by the coding style guidelines of many organizations or software projects. For some languages (such as Mesa, Pascal, Modula, Java and Microsoft's .NET) this practice is recommended by the language developers or by authoritative manuals and has therefore become part of the language's "culture".
Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower camel case, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: variables, record fields, methods, procedures, types, etc. These rules are sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code for adherence.
The original Hungarian notation for programming, for example, specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the "usage type" (not data type) should prefix all variable names, with the remainder of the name in upper camel case; as such it is a form of lower camel case.
Programming identifiers often need to contain acronyms and initialisms that are already in upper case, such as "old HTML file". By analogy with the title case rules, the natural camel case rendering would have the abbreviation all in upper case, namely "oldHTMLFile". However, this approach is problematic when two acronyms occur together (e.g., "parse DBM XML" would become "parseDBMXML") or when the standard mandates lower camel case but the name begins with an abbreviation (e.g. "SQL server" would become "sQLServer"). For this reason, some programmers prefer to treat abbreviations as if they were lower case words and write "oldHtmlFile", "parseDbmXml" or "sqlServer".
Wiki link markup
Camel case is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages. This convention was originally used in Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, and can be activated in most other wikis. Some wiki engines such as TiddlyWiki, Trac and PMWiki make use of it in the default settings, but usually also provide a configuration mechanism or plugin to disable it. Wikipedia formerly used camel case linking as well, but switched to explicit link markup using square brackets and many other wiki sites have done the same. Some wikis that do not use camel case linking may still use the camel case as a naming convention, such as AboutUs.
Other uses
The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper camel case and XML attributes use lower camel case.
Most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages cannot easily handle file names that contain embedded spaces (usually requiring the name to be put in quotes). Therefore, users of those systems often resort to camel case (or underscores, hyphens and other "safe" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf.
Microblogging and social networking sites that limit the number of characters in a message (most famously Twitter, where the 140-character limit can be quite restrictive in languages that rely on alphabets, including English) are potential outlets for medial capitals. Using CamelCase between words reduces the number of spaces, and thus the number of characters, in a given message, allowing more content to fit into the limited space.
Current usage in natural languages
Camel case has been used in languages other than English for a variety of purposes, including the ones below:
Orthographic markings
Camel case is sometimes used in the transcription of certain scripts, to differentiate letters or markings. An example is the rendering of Tibetan proper names like rLobsang: the "r" here stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter. Another example is tsIurku, a Latin transcription of the Chechen term for the capping stone of the characteristic Medieval defensive towers of Chechenia and Ingushetia; the capital letter "I" here denoting a phoneme distinct from the one transcribed as "i".
Inflection prefixes
Camel case may also be used when writing proper names in languages that inflect words by attaching prefixes to them. In some of those languages, the custom is to leave the prefix in lower case and capitalize the root.
This convention is used in Irish orthography as well as Scots Gaelic orthography; e.g., i nGaillimh ("in Galway"), from Gaillimh ("Galway"); an tAlbanach ("the Scottish person"), from Albanach ("Scottish person"); go hÉireann ("to Ireland"), from Éire ("Ireland).
Similarly, in transliteration of the Hebrew language, haIvri means "the Hebrew person" and biYerushalayim means "in Jerusalem".
This convention is also used by several Bantu languages (e.g., kiSwahili = "Swahili language", isiZulu = "Zulu language") and several indigenous languages of Mexico (e.g. Nahuatl, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque and some Oto-Manguean languages).
In abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviations of some academic qualifications are sometimes presented in camel case without punctuation, e.g. PhD or BSc.
In French, camel case acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms.
Camel case is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent a single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК.
Honorifics within compound words
In several languages, including English, pronouns and possessives may be capitalized to indicate respect, e.g., when referring to the reader of a formal letter or to God. In some of those languages, the capitalization is customarily retained even when those words occur within compound words or suffixed to a verb. For example, in Italian one would write porgendoLe distinti saluti ("offering to You respectful salutations") or adorarLo ("adore Him").
Other uses
In German, many nouns carry a grammatical gender—which, for roles or job titles, is felt usually as masculine. Since the feminist movement of the 1980s, some writers and publishers have been using the feminine title suffixes -in (singular) and -innen (plural) to emphasize the inclusion of females; but written with a capital 'I', to indicate that males are not excluded. Example: MitarbeiterInnen ("co-workers, male or female") instead of Mitarbeiter ("co-workers", masculine grammatical gender) or Mitarbeiterinnen ("female co-workers"). This use is analogous to the use of parentheses in English, for example in the phrase "congress(wo)man."
In German, the names to statutes are abbreviated using embedded capitals, e.g. StGB (Strafgesetzbuch) for criminal code, PatG (Patentgesetz) for Patent Act or the very common GmbH (Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung) for Company with Limited Liability.
Criticism
CamelCase has been criticised as negatively impacting readability due to the removing of spaces and upcasing of every word.[35] One natural language study found that replacing spaces between words with letters or digits made it harder to recognise individual words, which resulted in increased reading times.[36] However, a study that specifically compared under_score style and CamelCase found that camel case identifiers could be recognised with higher accuracy among both programmers and non-programmers, and that programmers already trained in CamelCase were able to recognise CamelCase identifiers faster than underscored identifiers.[37]
Use of CamelCase can conflict with the regular use of uppercase letters for all caps acronyms e.g. to represent a concept like "the TCP IP socket ID" the writer must choose to either retain the capitalisation of the acronyms ("TCPIPSocketID"), which harms readability, or to retain capitalisation of only the first letter ("TcpIpSocketId"), which makes it harder to recognise that a given word is intended as an acronym.[38] An alternative is to follow any instance of acronymic capitalization with a re-initialization of lower case camel, as TCPIPsocketID. This has the effect of enforcing the lower camel case standard.
See also
- All caps
- Capitalization
- Caps lock
- Letter case
- Roman cursive
- Roman square capitals
- Sentence case
- Shift key
- Small caps
- snake case
- StudlyCaps
- Unicase
References
- ^ "Capitalization Styles". Microsoft. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
- ^ "Naming Conventions". Scala. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
- ^ "Capitalization Styles". Retrieved 5 December 2012.
- ^ a b c Hayes, Brian (July–August 2006). "The Semicolon Wars". American Scientist Online: The Magazine of Sigma XI. The Scientific Research Society. art. pg. 2.
- ^ C# Coding Standards and Guidelines at Purdue University College of Technology
- ^ "CamelCase@Everything2.com". Everything2.com. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ^ a b Style Guide for Python Code at www.python.org
- ^ a b "compoundName". discussion thread at alt.folklore.computers. 29 March 1990.
- ^ "[#APF-1088] If class name has embedded capitals, AppGen code fails UI tests and generated hyperlinks are incorrect. – AppFuse JIRA". Issues.appfuse.org. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ^ ASP Naming Conventions, by Nannette Thacker (05/01/1999)
- ^ Iverson, Cheryl, et al. (eds) (2007). AMA Manual of Style (10th ed.). Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517633-9.
- ^ Christine A. Hult and Thomas N. Huckin. "The Brief New Century Handbook – Rules for internal capitalization". Pearson Education.
- ^ "Brad Abrams : History around Pascal Casing and Camel Casing". Blogs.msdn.com. 3 February 2004. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ "Pascal Case". C2.com. 27 September 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ "NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles". Msdn2.microsoft.com. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ "WikiWord < TWiki < TWiki". Twiki.org. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ^ "Wiki Case". C2.com. 8 February 2010. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ^ Title Case in PHP at SitePoint Blogs
- ^ WordTips: Intelligent Title Case. Retrieved 2014-04-24
- ^ "How to: Change casing in Text to TitleCase – Jan Schreuder on .Net". Bloggingabout.net. 14 November 2006. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1813). Essay on the Cause of Chemical Proportions and on Some Circumstances Relating to Them: Together with a Short and Easy Method of Expressing Them. Annals of Philosophy 2, 443-454, 3, 51-52; (1814) 93-106, 244-255, 353-364.
- ^ Henry M. Leicester & Herbert S. Klickstein, eds. 1952, A Source Book in Chemistry, 1400-1900 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard)
- ^ Fowler, Henry W.; Fowler, Francis G. (1908). "Chapter IV. Punctuation – Hyphens". The King's English (2nd ed.). Oxford. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
- ^ The Trade-mark Reporter (v. 20). United States Trademark Association. 1930. ISBN 1-59888-091-8.
- ^ ""MisteRogers" (1962)". Imdb.com. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ ""Resume of Session 8". Digital Computers: Advanced Coding Techniques. Summer Session 1954, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, page 8-6." (PDF). Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ Strachey, Christopher (October 1965). "A General Purpose Macrogenerator". Computer Journal 8 (3): 225–241. doi:10.1093/comjnl/8.3.225.
- ^ ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification. p. 20, § 5.2.4.1 Translation limits.
- ^ "Unitedhealthgroup.com". Unitedhealthgroup.com. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ Farhad Manjoo (30 April 2002). "Grads Want to Study on EMacs, Too". Wired.com. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ^ Feedback, 20 June 1998 Vol 158 No 2139 New Scientist 20 June 1998
- ^ "The jargon file version 2.5.1 29 January 1991 follows in 15 parts – misc.misc | Google Groups". Groups.google.com. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
- ^ Newton Love View profile More options. "I'm happy again! – comp.os.os2.advocacy | Google Groups". Groups.google.com. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
- ^ Newton Love
- ^ Caleb Crain (23 November 2009). "Against Camel Case". New York Times.
- ^ J. Epelboim, J. Booth, R. Ashkenazy, and A. Taleghani R. steinmans (1997). "Fillers and spaces in text: The importance of word recognition during reading". Vision Research, 37(20).
- ^ Dave Binkley and Marcia Davis and Dawn Lawrie and Christopher Morrell (2009). "To CamelCase or Under_score". IEEE 17th International Conference on Program Comprehension, 2009. ICPC '09. (IEEE): 158–167. "The experiment builds on past work of others who study how readers of natural language perform such tasks. Results indicate that camel casing leads to higher accuracy among all subjects regardless of training, and those trained in camel casing are able to recognize identifiers in the camel case style faster than identifiers in the underscore style."
- ^ Dave Binkley and Marcia Davis and Dawn Lawrie and Christopher Morrell (2009). "To CamelCase or Under_score". IEEE 17th International Conference on Program Comprehension, 2009. ICPC '09. (IEEE): 158–167. "In terms of camel-cased identifiers, this has a greater impact on identifiers that include short words and especially acronyms. For example, consider the acronym ID found in the identifier kIOuterIIDPath. Because of the run of uppercase letters, the task of reading kIOuterIIDPath, in particular the identification of the word ID, is more difficult."
External links
- Examples and history of CamelCase, also WordsSmashedTogetherLikeSo
- .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles
- What's in a nAME(cq)?, by Bill Walsh, at The Slot
- The Science of Word Recognition, by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation
- OASIS Cover Pages: CamelCase for Naming XML-Related Components
- Convert text to CamelCase, Title Case, Uppercase and lowercase
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