/yː/ is infrequent.[4] It and the other long close rounded vowel /uː/ are absent from the dialect of Ljouwert.[5]
The height of /ɪ/ has been variously described as close-mid [e][6] and mid [e̞].[7]
Many scholars[8] transcribe /ø/ as /ø/, but de Haan (2010) transcribes it as /ʏ/.[9] Phonetically, this vowel has been variously described as close-mid front rounded [ø][10] and close-mid central slightly rounded [ɵ̜].[7]
Although they pattern with monophthongs, the long close-mid vowels transcribed /eː, øː, oː/ are often realized as narrow closing diphthongs [eɪ, øʏ, oʊ].[11][12] One of the exceptions is /øː/ in the Hindeloopers dialect, which is realized as a long monophthong [øː].[5]
Booij (1989) argues that the rising diphthongs /jɪ, jɛ, wa, wo/ (he also lists the rare /jø/) are in fact glide-vowel sequences, not real diphthongs.[17] This view is supported by Hoekstra & Tiersma (2013) who transcribe them as /jɪ, jɛ, wa, wo/,[18] which is the convention used in this article.
In Southwestern dialects, /wa, wo/ are monophthongized to short central [ɞ, ɵ].[19]
Phonetically, the first element of /ɛi/ can be either [ɛ] or [æ].[20]
Many scholars[21] transcribe /øy/ as /øy/, but Booij (1989) transcribes it as /ʌy/. According to Tiersma (1999), the first element of /øy/ is lower than the vowel /ø/[20] (i.e. more like [œ], similar to the traditional Standard Dutch pronunciation of /œy/).
Some scholars[22] transcribe /ɔu/ as /ɔu/, yet others[23] transcribe it as /au/. Phonetically, the first element of this diphthong may be either of these, i.e. [ɔ] or, less often, [a].[24]
/r/ is silent before other alveolar consonants.[30][31] An exception to this rule are recent loanwords from Standard Dutch (e.g. sport), which may or may not be pronounced with [r].[32]
/ŋ, k, x, ɣ/ are velar, whereas /j/ is palatal.[33]
/ɣ/ has two allophones: a plosive [ɡ], which appears word-initially and syllable-initially (the latter only when stressed), and a fricative [ɣ], which occurs elsewhere.[13][34]
The syllabic sonorants [m̩, n̩, ŋ̍, l̩, r̩] occur in the following circumstances:
In the ending ⟨en⟩, which in careful speech is pronounced [ən]:[35]
It is realized as [m̩] when preceded by /m, p, b/.[35]
It is realized as [n̩] when preceded by /f, v, n, t, d, s, z, r, l/.[35]
It is realized as [ŋ̍] when preceded by /k, x, ɣ/.[35]
In the endings ⟨el⟩ and ⟨er⟩ (in careful speech: [əl] and [ər], respectively), which after consonants are realized as [l̩] and [r̩], respectively.[35]
In some other cases. See Sipma (1913:36) for more information.
/j/ and the [ʋ] allophone of /v/ are the only sonorants which cannot be syllabic.
Glottal stop [ʔ] may precede word-initial vowels. In careful speech, it may also occur between unstressed and stressed vowel or diphthong.[36]
Among fricatives, neither /x/ nor any of the voiced fricatives can occur word-initially.[37]
/l/ is velarized [ɫ] in all environments except before the close front vowels /i, iː, y, yː/, where it is realized as clear [l].
Final devoicing
Word-final /b, d/ are realized as voiceless [p, t] in all dialects except Amelansk.[38] Note, however, that final /b/ is rare,[39] and that in loanwords from Standard Dutch, final /ɣ/ can also appear, and is also devoiced to [x].
Hoekstra, Jarich (2001), "12. Standard West Frisian", in Munske, Horst Haider; Århammar, Hans, Handbook of Frisian studies, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH, pp. 83–98, ISBN 3-484-73048-X
Hoekstra, Jarich (2003), "Frisian. Standardization in progress of a language in decay", Germanic Standardizations. Past to Present(PDF)18, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 193–209, ISBN 978-90-272-1856-8
Hoekstra, Jarich; Tiersma, Peter Meijes (2013) [First published 1994], "16 Frisian", in van der Auwera, Johan; König, Ekkehard, The Germanic Languages, Routledge, pp. 505–531, ISBN 0-415-05768-X
Tiersma, Peter Meijes (1999) [First published 1985 in Dordrecht by Foris Publications], Frisian Reference Grammar (2nd ed.), Ljouwert: Fryske Akademy, ISBN 90-6171-886-4
van der Veen, Klaas F. (2001), "13. West Frisian Dialectology and Dialects", in Munske, Horst Haider; Århammar, Hans, Handbook of Frisian studies, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH, pp. 98–116, ISBN 3-484-73048-X
Visser, Willem (1997), The Syllable in Frisian(PDF), Leiden: Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics, ISBN 90-5569-030-9
Further reading
Fokkema, Klaas (1961), "Consonantgroepen in de Zuidwesthoek van Friesland", in Heeroma, Klaas Hanzen; Fokkema, Klaas, Structuurgeografie, Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitg. Mij., pp. 16–26
Tiersma, Peter Meijes (1983), "The nature of phonological representation: evidence from breaking in Frisian", Journal of Linguistics10: 59–78, JSTOR4175665