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Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is defined as the use of violence, or threatened use of violence, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. In modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, or enemy prisoners of war.[1]
A broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by mostly right-wing and sometimes left-wing political parties, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.[2] The symbolism of terrorism can exploit human fear to help achieve these goals.[3]
Contents
- 1 Origin of term
- 2 Definition
- 3 Pejorative use
- 4 Types
- 5 Motivation of terrorists
- 6 Democracy and domestic terrorism
- 7 Religious terrorism
- 8 Intimate terrorism
- 9 Perpetrators
- 10 Leisure
- 11 Funding
- 12 Tactics
- 13 Responses
- 14 Mass media
- 15 History
- 16 Databases
- 17 See also
- 18 References
- 19 Further reading
- 20 External links
Origin of term
"Terrorism" comes from the French word terrorisme,[4] and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere (e, terreo) meaning "to frighten".[5] The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105 BCE that the Jacobins cited as a precedent when imposing the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.[6][7] After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of abuse.[8]
Although "terrorism" originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people[9] for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a "terrorist".[10] Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869.[11]
In November 2004, a Secretary-General of the United Nations report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act".[12]
Definition
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The definition of terrorism has proven controversial. Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged.[13] In this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian Parliament, stated,
The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination.[14]
These divergences have made it impossible for the United Nations to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal law definition of terrorism.[15] The international community has adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities.
Since 1994, the United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism:
Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.[16]
U.S. Code Title 22 Chapter 38, Section 2656f(d) defines terrorism as: “Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.”[17]
Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted:
It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, 'Political Terrorism: A Research Guide,' Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definitions of terrorism in an effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the "search for an adequate definition is still on". Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.[18]
Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:
By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is :
- ineluctably political in aims and motives;
- violent—or, equally important, threatens violence;
- designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target;
- conducted either by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) or by individuals or a small collection of individuals directly influenced, motivated, or inspired by the ideological aims or example of some existent terrorist movement and/or
its leaders; and
- perpetrated by a subnational group or nonstate entity.[19]
A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:
Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states.[20]
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Each act of terrorism is a "performance" devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols,[21] to show power and to attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist group and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.[22]
Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose.[23] This is often where the inter-relationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"[24] struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians.[25]
Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting their message out to an audience or otherwise satisfying the demands of their often radical religious and political agendas.[26]
Some official, governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness of the act.[27][better source needed] to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. For example, carrying out a strategic bombing on an enemy city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government. This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted,[attribution needed] because: it denies the existence of state terrorism;[28] the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.[4][29][30][31]
According to Ali Khan, the distinction lies ultimately in a political judgment.[32]
An associated, and arguably more easily definable, but not equivalent term is violent non-state actor.[33] The semantic scope of this term includes not only "terrorists", but while excluding some individuals or groups who have previously been described as "terrorists", and also explicitly excludes state terrorism.
Barack Obama, commenting on the Boston Marathon bombings of April 2013, declared that "[a]nytime bombs are used to target innocent civilians, it is an act of terror."[34] Various commentators have pointed out the distinction between "act of terror" and "terrorism", particularly when used by the White House.[35][36]
Pejorative use
The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" (someone who engages in terrorism) carry strong negative connotations.[37] These terms are often used as political labels, to condemn violence or the threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population.[38][39] Those labeled "terrorists" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, patriot, or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. Jihadi, mujaheddin, and fedayeen are similar Arabic words that have entered the English lexicon. It is common for both parties in a conflict to describe each other as terrorists.[40]
On whether particular terrorist acts, such as killing non-combatants, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: while, according to David Rodin, utilitarian philosophers can (in theory) conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good that could not be achieved in a less morally costly way, in practice the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism".[41] Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, Michael Walzer argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants, then it is morally entitled to do so".[41][42]
In his book Inside Terrorism Bruce Hoffman offered an explanation of why the term terrorism becomes distorted:
On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.[43][44][45]
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The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the aphorism, "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter".[40] This is exemplified when a group using irregular military methods is an ally of a state against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally. During World War II, the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army was allied with the British, but during the Malayan Emergency, members of its successor (the Malayan Races Liberation Army), were branded "terrorists" by the British.[46][47] More recently, Ronald Reagan and others in the American administration frequently called the Afghan Mujahideen "freedom fighters" during their war against the Soviet Union,[48] yet twenty years later, when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks were labelled "terrorism" by George W. Bush.[49][50][51] Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action.[52][53][54] Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University, defines "terrorist acts" as unlawful attacks for political or other ideological goals, and said:
There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.[55]
Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called "terrorists" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called "statesmen" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.[56][57][58][59][60][61] WikiLeaks editor Julian Assange has been called a "terrorist" by Sarah Palin and Joe Biden.[62][63]
Sometimes, states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether or not members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, for many years, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (the United Kingdom) that the UK branded as terrorism. This was highlighted by the Quinn v. Robinson case.[64][65]
Media outlets who wish to convey impartiality may limit their usage of "terrorist" and "terrorism" because they are loosely defined, potentially controversial in nature, and subjective terms.[66][67]
Types
Depending on the country, the political system, and the time in history, the types of terrorism are varying.
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In early 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee wrote was titled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H. H. A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.[71] The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.
- Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
- Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
- Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to "acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
- Official or state terrorism – "referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions". It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.
- Data-terrorism – "The unjust storage or use of private information for economic, political or personal gains". Commonly seen in governments and countries like the United States, Canada and Australia. Large corporations such as Facebook are also guilty of using user data without confirming explicit user knowledge and consent to do so when joining.
- Passive terrorism - is an inert or quiescent behavior towards terrorism; an inaction, non-reaction, non-participation, non-involvement in countering terrorism. Passive terrorism describes a behavior of general public or government which silently allows the spread or promotion of terrorism by turning a blind eye or tolerating terrorism. Passive terrorism prevails when there is no deliberate effort or decision to either counter it or raise voice against it.
The term hasn’t been widely defined or discussed openly as yet and has just been recently emerging in the wake of recent ongoing terrorism activities against or in the countries like Pakistan. The word “Passive” has its origin from 1350 – 1400; Middle English Latin passīvus literally means submissive or to submit. “Terrorism” originated in 1795 from French terrorisme, from Latin terror; used as government intimidation during the reign of terror in France in 1795. Professor Daniel L Byman, in his article "Passive Sponsorship of Terrorism," (published in Journal "Survival" 2005), in the MIT Security Studies Seminar in 2004 defined the term "Passive Sponsorship of Terrorism" as the individuals assistance of terrorists without their permission. A regime is guilty of passive sponsorship if it knowingly allows a terrorist group to raise money, enjoy a sanctuary, recruit, or otherwise flourish but does not directly aid the group itself. Professor Byman define the following characteristics of Passive support of terrorism:
The regime in question itself does not provide assistance but knowingly allows other actors in the country to aid a terrorist group; The regime has the capacity to stop this assistance or has chosen not to develop this capacity, and Often passive support is given by political parties, wealthy merchants, or other actors in society that have no formal affiliation with the government.
Several sources[72][73][74] have further defined the typology of terrorism:
- Political terrorism
- Sub-state terrorism
- Social revolutionary terrorism
- Nationalist-separatist terrorism
- Religious extremist terrorism
- Religious fundamentalist Terrorism
- New religions terrorism
- Right-wing terrorism
- Left-wing terrorism
- State-sponsored terrorism
- Regime or state terrorism
- Sub-state terrorism
- Criminal terrorism
- Pathological terrorism
Motivation of terrorists
Attacks on 'collaborators' are used to intimidate people from cooperating with the state in order to undermine state control. This strategy was used in Ireland, in Kenya, in Algeria and in Cyprus during their independence struggles.
Attacks on high profile symbolic targets are used to incite counter-terrorism by the state to polarize the population. This strategy was used by Al-Qaeda in its attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in the United States on September 11, 2001. These attacks are also used to draw international attention to struggles that are otherwise unreported, such as the Palestinian airplane hijackings in 1970 and the South Moluccan hostage crisis in the Netherlands in 1975.
Abrahm suggests that terrorist organizations do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness.[75] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined.[75] Additionally, Michael Mousseau shows possible relationships between the type of economy within a country and ideology associated with terrorism.[76]
Some terrorists like Timothy McVeigh were motivated by revenge against a state for its actions against its citizens.
Democracy and domestic terrorism
The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is very complex. Terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and is least common in the most democratic nations.[77][78][79][80] However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy–a state with a considerable degree of political freedom.[81] The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.[82] There is a connection between having civil liberties, democratic participation and terrorism. According to Young and Dugan, these things encourage terrorist groups to organize and generate terror.[83]
Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco (although the group's terrorist activities increased sharply after Franco's death),[84] the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in pre-war Poland,[85] the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori,[86] the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa.[87] Democracies, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Israel, Indonesia, India, Spain and the Philippines, have also experienced domestic terrorism.
While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties.[88] For this reason, homegrown terrorism has started to be seen as a greater threat, as stated by former CIA Director Michael Hayden.[89] This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state and cause a systematic shift towards anarchy via accumulation of negative sentiment towards state system.[90]
Religious terrorism
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Religious terrorism is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in faith-based tenets. Terrorist acts throughout history have been performed on religious grounds with the goal to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or opinion.[92] The validity and scope of religious terrorism is limited to the individual or a group view or interpretation of that belief system's teachings.
Intimate terrorism
Intimate terrorism (IT) may also involve emotional and psychological abuse. Intimate terrorism is one element in a general pattern of control by one partner over the other. Intimate terrorism is more likely to escalate over time, not as likely to be mutual, and more likely to involve serious injury.[93] IT batterers include two types: "Generally-violent-antisocial" and "dysphoric-borderline". The first type includes people with general psychopathic and violent tendencies. The second type are people who are emotionally dependent on the relationship.[94] Violence by a person against their intimate partner is often done as a way for controlling their partner, even if this kind of violence is not the most frequent.[95][96] Support for this typology has been found in subsequent evaluations.[97][98]
Perpetrators
The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the September 11 attacks, the London underground bombing, 2008 Mumbai attacks and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed.[99]
Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a terrorist profile to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non-state actors.[100] A 2007 study by economist Alan B. Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background (28% vs. 33%) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47% vs. 38%). Another analysis found only 16% of terrorists came from impoverished families, vs. 30% of male Palestinians, and over 60% had gone beyond high school, vs. 15% of the populace.[101]
To avoid detection, a terrorist will look, dress, and behave normally until executing the assigned mission. Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality, physical, or sociological traits are not useful.[102] The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person.[103] However, the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men, aged 16–40.[103]
Non-state groups
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Groups not part of the state apparatus of in opposition to the state are most commonly referred to as a "terrorist" in the media.
State sponsors
A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist group. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.
State terrorism
Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.
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As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial.[105] The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human rights law, and international humanitarian law.[106] Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law".[107] However, he also made clear that, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians [or non-combatants], regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."[108]
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State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts by governmental agents or forces. This involves the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism. Professor of Political Science Michael Stohl cites the examples that include the German bombing of London, the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, the British firebombing of Dresden, and the U.S. atomic bombing of Hiroshima during World War II. He argues that "the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." He also cites the first strike option as an example of the "terror of coercive diplomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management" and argue that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War II. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this state behavior.[109][110][110]
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Charles Stewart Parnell described William Ewart Gladstone's Irish Coercion Act as terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the Irish Land War.[111] The concept is also used to describe political repressions by governments against their own civilian population with the purpose to incite fear. For example, taking and executing civilian hostages or extrajudicial elimination campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during the Red Terror or Great Terror.[112] Such actions are often also described as democide or genocide, which has been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism.[113] Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.[114][115]
Leisure
The connection between terrorism and tourism has been widely studied since the Luxor massacre in Egypt.[116][117] In the 1970s, the targets of terrorists were politicians and chiefs of police while now international tourists and visitors are selected as main targets of attacks. The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, were the symbolic epicenter, which marked a new epoch in the use of civil transport against the main power of the planet.[118][119] From this event onwards, the spaces of leisure that characterized the pride of West, were conceived as dangerous and frightful.[120][121] Maximiliano E Korstanje[who?] argued that terrorism represents a dialectics of hate, between a group of insurgents whose interests has been placed out the election system and the state which is unable to anticipate the next blow. Historically, tourism and terrorism has inextricably intertwined. As enrooted in the capitalist ethos, terrorism rests on the logic of violence and extortion, where outsiders are used to achieve the in-group goals.[122] Similarly, Luke Howie explains that the action of terrorists are not aimed at effacing entire civilizations, as the media portrays, but in administering an extreme fear so that their claims will be accepted. Terrorists are usually psychologically insensitive to the suffering of others. Using extortion as a main tactic, the media plays a fertile ground to amplify the effects of terrorism in the society.[123][124][125] Likely, one of the main problems of terrorism seems to be the needs to take the attention of audience. At some extent, terrorists appeal to jolt the society, however, the gradual process of desensitization the western audience experiences. This results these groups innovate in more cruel and violent strategies.[126]
Funding
State sponsors have constituted a major form of funding; for example, Palestine Liberation Organization, Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and other groups considered to be terrorist organizations, were funded by the Soviet Union.[127][128] The Stern Gang received funding from Italian Fascist officers in Beirut to undermine the British Mandate for Palestine.[129] Pakistan has created and nurtured terrorist groups as policy for achieving tactical objectives against its neighbours, especially India.[130]
"Revolutionary tax" is another major form of funding, and essentially a euphemism for "protection money".[127] Revolutionary taxes are typically extorted from businesses (including farms cultivating illicit drugs (such as Papaver somniferum)[131] and they also "play a secondary role as one other means of intimidating the target population".[127]
Other major sources of funding include kidnapping for ransoms, smuggling (including wildlife smuggling),[132] fraud, and robbery.[127] The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant have reportedly received funding "via private donations from the Gulf states".[133]
The Financial Action Task Force is an inter-governmental body whose mandate, since October 2001, has included combatting terrorist financing.[134]
Tactics
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Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when direct conventional warfare will not be effective because forces vary greatly in power.[135]
The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political conflict. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:
- Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
- Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
- Imposition of a particular form of government
- Economic deprivation of a population
- Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
- Religious fanaticism
Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, usually using explosives or poison.[136] There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass destruction. Terrorist groups usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant undercover agents, and raise money from supporters or through organized crime. Communications occur through modern telecommunications, or through old-fashioned methods such as couriers.
Responses
Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.
Specific types of responses include:
- Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
- Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
- Preemptive or reactive military action
- Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
- Preemptive humanitarian activities
- More permissive interrogation and detention policies
The term "counter-terrorism" has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.
Response in the United States
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20160411150019im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Backscatter_large.jpg/220px-Backscatter_large.jpg)
According to a report by Dana Priest and William M. Arkin in The Washington Post, "Some 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies work on programs related to counterterrorism, homeland security and intelligence in about 10,000 locations across the United States."[137]
America's thinking on how to defeat radical Islamists is split along two very different schools of thought. Republicans, typically follow what is known as the Bush Doctrine, advocate the military model of taking the fight to the enemy and seeking to democratize the Middle East. Democrats, by contrast, generally propose the law enforcement model of better cooperation with nations and more security at home.[138] In the introduction of the U.S. Army / Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual, Sarah Sewall states the need for "U.S. forces to make securing the civilian, rather than destroying the enemy, their top priority. The civilian population is the center of gravity—the deciding factor in the struggle.... Civilian deaths create an extended family of enemies—new insurgent recruits or informants––and erode support of the host nation." Sewall sums up the book’s key points on how to win this battle: "Sometimes, the more you protect your force, the less secure you may be.... Sometimes, the more force is used, the less effective it is.... The more successful the counterinsurgency is, the less force can be used and the more risk must be accepted.... Sometimes, doing nothing is the best reaction."[139] This strategy, often termed "courageous restraint," has certainly led to some success on the Middle East battlefield, yet it fails to address the central truth: the terrorists we face are mostly homegrown.[138]
Terrorism research
Terrorism research, also called terrorism and counter-terrorism research, is an interdisciplinary academic field which seeks to understand the causes of terrorism, how to prevent it as well as its impact in the broadest sense. Terrorism research can be carried out in both military and civilian contexts, for example by research centres such as the British Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence or the Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies. There are several academic journals devoted to the field.[140]
Mass media
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20160411150019im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Plakat_La_Terroriste.jpg/220px-Plakat_La_Terroriste.jpg)
Mass media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.[141]
The Internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.[142]
The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.[143]
There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.
— Novelist William Gibson[144]
Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher also famously spoke of the close connection between terrorism and the media, calling publicity 'the oxygen of terrorism'.[145]
History
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20160411150019im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Fenian_guy_fawkesr1867reduced.png/200px-Fenian_guy_fawkesr1867reduced.png)
Depending on how broadly the term is defined, the roots and practice of terrorism can be traced at least to the 1st-century AD Sicarii Zealots, though some dispute whether the group, a radical offshoot of the Zealots which was active in Judaea Province at the beginning of the 1st century AD, was in fact terrorist. According to the contemporary Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, after the Zealotry rebellion against Roman rule in Judea, when some prominent collaborators with Roman rule were killed,[146][147] Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii, in 6 AD.[148] Their terror also was directed against Jewish "collaborators", including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites.[149]
The term "terrorism" itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the "Reign of Terror" in the French Revolution. "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible," said Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre. In 1795, Edmund Burke denounced the Jacobins for letting "thousands of those hell-hounds called Terrorists ... loose on the people" of France.[150]
In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III.[151] Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured.[151] The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early terrorist groups.[151]
Arguably the first organization to utilize modern terrorist techniques was the Irish Republican Brotherhood,[152] founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group[153] that carried out attacks in England.[154] The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, one of the first modern terror campaigns.[155] Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used modern, timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains.[156]
Another early terrorist group was Narodnaya Volya, founded in Russia in 1878 as a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergei Nechayev and "propaganda by the deed" theorist Pisacane.[157][158] The group developed ideas—such as targeted killing of the 'leaders of oppression'—that were to become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non-state groups, and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age—such as the invention of dynamite, which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of[159]—enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination.[160] Modern terrorism had largely taken shape by the turn of the 20th century.
Databases
The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:
- MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base
- Worldwide Incidents Tracking System
- Tocsearch (dynamic database)
The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism:
The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United States Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:
See also
- Astroturfing can and has been used as a method of terrorism
- Christian terrorism
- Crimes against humanity
- Cyberterrorism
- Definitions of terrorism
- Domestic terrorism in the United States
- Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism
- Global Terrorism Index
- House of Terror
- Islamic extremism
- Islamic terrorism
- Jewish religious terrorism
- Jihadi tourism
- Khalistan movement
- List of designated terrorist groups
- List of non-state terrorist incidents
- Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
- Narcoterrorism
- National Counter Terrorism Security Office
- Saffron terror
- State terrorism
- Suicide attack
- Terrorism in Russia
- Terrorism in the European Union
- Victims of Acts of Terror Memorial
- War on Terror
References
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- ^ a b "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
- ^ Kim Campbell (September 27, 2001). "When is 'terrorist' a subjective term?". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
New York Times columnist William Safire wrote that the word "terrorist" has its roots in the Latin terrere, which means "to frighten".
- ^ |quote= The French were the first to coin the term, he says.
- ^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
In 1792 the Jacobins came to power in France and initiated what we call the Reign of Terror and what the French call simply La Terreur.
- ^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
For the next 150 years the word "terrorism" led a double life – a justifiable political strategy to some an abomination to others
- ^ Robert Mackey (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders.
- ^ Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
- ^ Arnold, Kathleen R., ed. (September 23, 2011). Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia II. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 461. ISBN 978-0-313-37521-7.
- ^ "UN Reform". United Nations. 2005-03-21. Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism–an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community–as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act"
- ^ Hoffman (1998), p. 32, See review in The New York Times Inside Terrorism.
- ^ Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September, Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002. Archived April 11, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Diaz-Paniagua (2008), Negotiating terrorism: The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter-terrorism treaties, 1997–2005, p. 47.
- ^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60, "Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism", of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
- ^ "22 U.S. Code § 2656f - Annual country reports on terrorism". LII / Legal Information Institute.
- ^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.
- ^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 40.
- ^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
- ^ Rick Hampson (2009-07-06). "Statue of Liberty gets her view back". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger.
- ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135.
- ^ "Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities". The Washington Post. June 12, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal
- ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
- ^ Alexander Stille (May 31, 2003). "Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Now the context in which we see nationalism has completely changed, he said. Faced with the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, the West is more open to looking at the role of religion in the formation of nationalism.
- ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 127–128.
- ^ "Terrorism in the United States 1999" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
- ^ "/Iraq accuses US of state terrorism". BBC News. 2002-02-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up.
- ^ "AskOxford Search Results – terrorist". AskOxford. AskOxford. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
- ^ "Cambridge International Dictionary of English". Dictionary.cambridge.org. Archived from the original on September 26, 2008. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
- ^ "Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
- ^ Khan, Ali (1987). "A Theory of International Terrorism" (PDF). Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
- ^ Barak Mendelsohn (January 2005). "Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract)". Cambridge Journals. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
This article examines the complex relations between a violent non-state actor, the Al Qaeda network, and order in the international system. Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole.
- ^ 'President Obama calls the Boston Marathon bombings 'an act of terror'' on Daily News website, viewed 2013-04-17
- ^ Jacob Gershman. "Defining Terrorism Isn’t So Easy". WSJ.
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- ^ Bob Thompson (May 1, 2005). "Hollywood on Crusade". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
... terrorism. He was widely chastised for using a word that carries major negative connotations ...
- ^ The Guardian Syrian official: US 'supporting terrorism' with rebel training programme "His government refers to all armed opposition as “terrorists” and accuses Turkey and Saudi Arabia of aiding them to undermine Assad."
- ^ B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.
- ^ a b Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador (14 September 2005). "UN staggers on road to reform". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
This would end the argument that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter ...
- ^ a b Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.
- ^ Peter Steinfels (March 1, 2003). "Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
For those like Professor Walzer who value the just-war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war ...
- ^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Google cached copy
- ^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
- ^ Raymond Bonner (November 1, 1998). "Getting Attention: A scholar's historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Inside Terrorism falls into the category of must read, at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror.
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- ^ Dr Chris Clark "Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948". Archived from the original on 2007-06-08., 16 June 2003.
- ^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference 8 March 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site.
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- ^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006.
- ^ "An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan [in 2009] reveals that many of these 'terrorists' individuals or groups were once 'freedom fighters' struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s." (Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009). Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (illustrated, reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-674-05134-8.)
- ^ Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
- ^ Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist? Time, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term "freedom fighters".
- ^ Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003.
- ^ Humphreys, Adrian. "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'", National Post, January 17, 2006.
- ^ Theodore P. Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in The Times published on July 23, 1946, which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun, of which Begin was a leading member.
- ^ BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."
- ^ Eqbal Ahmad "Straight talk on terrorism" Monthly Review, January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin". Archived March 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin—to give just three examples—were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom."
- ^ BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."
- ^ BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman".
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- ^ "Quinn v. Robinson, 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)". web site of the United Settlement. Retrieved 23 November 2010. External link in
|publisher=
(help) - ^ Zachary E. McCabe (25 August 2003). "Northern Ireland: The paramilitaries, Terrorism, and September 11th" (PDF). Queen's University Belfast School of Law. p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2007.
- ^ "Guardian and Observer style guide: T". The Guardian (London). 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
- ^ "BBC Editorial Guidelines on Language when Reporting Terrorism". BBC. Archived from the original on December 30, 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ a b "TE-SAT 2011 EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report" (PDF). Europol. 2011.
- ^ "TE-SAT 2010 Terrorism Situation and Trend Report" (PDF). Europol. 2010.
- ^ "TE-SAT 2009 Terrorism Situation and Trend Report" (PDF). Europol. 2009.
- ^ Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).
- ^ Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.
- ^ Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahead in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.
- ^ Terrorism and homeland security: an introduction with applications, by Philip P. Purpura, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007, ISBN 0-7506-7843-7, p. 16
- ^ a b Abrahms, Max (March 2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy" (PDF 1933 KB). International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 32 (4): 86–89. doi:10.1162/isec.2008.32.4.78. ISSN 0162-2889. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
- ^ Mousseau, Michael (2002). "Market Civilization and its Clash with Terror". International Security 27 (3).
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- ^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism" (PDF). 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ "Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on October 1, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
The terrorists appear to be deliberately homing in on the few remaining places where Israelis thought they could socialize in peace.
- ^ Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism", American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.
- ^ Young, Joseph K.; Dugan, Laura. "Survival of the Fittest: Why Terrorist Groups Endure". Perspectives on Terrorism 8 (2). ISSN 2334-3745.
- ^ "Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks". Time. July 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Europe's longest-enduring terrorist group. This week, ETA (the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera, the Basque language)
- ^ Timothy Snyder. A fascist hero in democratic Kiev. NewYork Reviev of Books. 24 February 2010
- ^ Romero, Simon (March 18, 2009). "Shining Path". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
The Shining Path, a faction of Peruvian militants, has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes. The war against the group, which took nearly 70,000 lives, supposedly ended in 2000. ... In the 1980s, the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets, assassinations and other terrorist tactics.
- ^ "1983: Car bomb in South Africa kills 16". BBC. 2005-05-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
The outlawed anti-apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack ... He said the explosion was the "biggest and ugliest" terrorist incident since anti-government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago.
- ^ Rick Young (May 16, 2007). "PBS Frontline: 'Spying on the Home Front'". PBS: Frontline. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
... we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post-9/11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy.
- ^ Yager, Jordy (July 25, 2010). "Former intel chief: Homegrown terrorism is a devil of a problem". thehill.com.
- ^ shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State", Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp. 467.
- ^ "Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler?". BBC News. May 7, 2011.
- ^ Peter Rose (August 28, 2003). "Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Almost everyone Stern interviewed said they were doing God's will, defending the faithful against the lies and evil deeds of their enemies. Such testimonials, she suggests, "often mask a deeper kind of angst and a deeper kind of fear – fear of a godless universe, of chaos, of loose rules, and of loneliness".
- ^ Paula Nicolson. Domestic Violence and Psychology: A Critical Perspective. Taylor & Francis; 14 December 2010. ISBN 978-1-136-69861-3. p. 40.
- ^ Johnson, M. P.; Ferraro, K. J. (2000). "Research on Domestic Violence in the 1990s: Making Distinctions". Journal of Marriage and Family 62 (4): 948–963. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00948.x.
- ^ LAROCHE Denis, Context and Consequences of Domestic Violence Against Men and Women in Canada in 2004 p.35. 2004 Archived April 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Jacobson, N. and J. Gottman (1998). When Men Batter Women: New Insights into Ending Abusive Relationships. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-81447-1. OCLC 37748396.
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- ^ Holtzworth-Munroe, A.; Meehan, J. C.; Herron, K.; Rehman, U.; Stuart, G. L. (2000). "Testing the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) batterer typology". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68 (6): 1000–1019. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.6.1000. PMID 11142534.
- ^ Sageman, Mark (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: U. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-0-8122-3808-2.
- ^ Williams, Phil (2008). "Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security". Retrieved 2009-02-14.[dead link]
- ^ Steven D. Levitt; Stephen J. Dubner (2009). Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance. William Morrow. pp. 62, 231. ISBN 978-0-06-088957-9. citing Alan B. Krueger, What Makes a Terrorist (Princeton University Press 2007); Claude Berrebi, "Evidence About the Link Between Education, Poverty, and Terrorism among Palestinians", Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper, 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 no. 4 Fall 2003 / 63.
- ^ Sean Coughlan (21 August 2006). "Fear of the unknown". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
A passenger on the flight, Heath Schofield, explained the suspicions: "It was a return holiday flight, full of people in flip-flops and shorts. There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn't belong there."
- ^ a b Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism.
- ^ Endgame: Resistance, by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58322-730-X, p. IX.
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- ^ Floyd, M. et al. (2003). “The Effects of Risk Perception on Intention to Travel in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001”. In Safety and Security in Tourism: relationships, Management and Marketing, (Eds) Hall, M. Timothy, D. y Duval, T. New York, Haworth Hospitality Press
- ^ Brun, W., Wolff, K., & Larsen, S. (2011). “Tourist worries after terrorist attacks: Report from a field experiment”. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 11(3): 387-394.
- ^ Korstanje, M. & Skoll G, & Timmerman, F. “Terrorism, Tourism and Worker Unions: the disciplinary boundaries of fear”. Special issue “Why Tourist are important for terrorism?”. Volume 2, Issue II. Novembre 2014. (pp. 1-12)
- ^ Korstanje, M. E. (2013). “Preemption and Terrorism. When the Future Governs”. Cultura, 10(1): 167-184.
- ^ Korstanje, M. E., & Clayton, A. (2012). “Tourism and terrorism: conflicts and commonalities”. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 4(1): 8-25.
- ^ Korstanje, M. E., & Tarlow, P. (2012). “Being lost: tourism, risk and vulnerability in the post-‘9/11’entertainment industry”. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 10(1): 22-33.
- ^ Howie, L. (2012). Witnesses to Terror: Understanding the Meanings and Consequences of Terrorism. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire.
- ^ a b c d Detection of Terrorist Financing, U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.
- ^ Jeremy Lott (October 6, 2004). "Tripped Up". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments
- ^ "Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine". Research and Analysis Branch (Washington: National Archives) 2717 (R & N). 1944-12-01.
- ^ Nelson, Dean (2009-07-08). "Pakistani president Asif Zardari admits creating terrorist groups". The Daily Telegraph.
- ^ "The Spoils of War: Afghanistan’s Multibillion Dollar Heroin Trade". Global Research. 25 May 2015.
- ^ Gerben Jan Gerbrandy claiming that terrorist networks hunt wildlife for funding themselves Archived October 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Syria's top Islamist and jihadist groups". France 24.
- ^ "Terrorist Financing". The Financial Action Task Force. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ "Hackers warn high street chains". BBC News. 25 April 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people.
- ^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
- Hoffman, Bruce (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". Atlantic Monthly 291 (5). pp. 40–47.
- Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism" (reprint). American Political Science Review 97 (3): 343–361. doi:10.1017/s000305540300073x.
- Ricolfi, Luca (2005). "Palestinians 1981–2003". In Gambetta, Diego. Making Sense of Suicide Missions (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 76–130. ISBN 978-0-19-927699-8.
- ^ Priest, Dana; Arkin, William (July 19, 2010). "A hidden world, growing beyond control". The Washington Post.
- ^ a b Ankony, Robert C., "A New Strategy for America's War on Terrorism," Patrolling magazine, 75th Ranger Regiment Association, Winter 2011, 56-57.
- ^ Sewall, Sarah, introduction to The U.S. Army / Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, (2007).
- ^ Tinnes, J. (2013). 100 Core and Periphery Journals for Terrorism Research. Perspectives On Terrorism, 7(2).
- ^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Summer 1997), pp. 51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
- ^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
- ^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
- ^ William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
- ^ "Speech to American Bar Association | Margaret Thatcher Foundation". www.margaretthatcher.org. Retrieved 2015-10-05.
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
- ^ Edmund Burke (1795). "Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam". Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 308–76, 371. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people.
- ^ a b c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38.
- ^ "Terrorism: From the Fenians to Al Qaeda". Archived from the original on December 3, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
- ^ Irish Freedom, by Richard English Publisher: Pan Books (2 November 2007), ISBN 0-330-42759-8 p179
- ^ Irish Freedom, by Richard English Publisher: Pan Books (2 November 2007), ISBN 0-330-42759-8 p. 180
- ^ Whelehan, Niall (2012). The Dynamiters: Irish Nationalism and Political Violence in the Wider World 1867-1900. Cambridge.
- ^ "The Fenian Dynamite campaign 1881-85". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
- ^ History of Terrorism article by Mark Burgess Archived May 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Hoffman 1998, p. 5
- ^ A History of Terrorism’’, by Walter Laqueur, Transaction Publishers, 2000, ISBN 0-7658-0799-8, p. 92 [4]
- ^ "BBC - History - The Changing Faces of Terrorism".
Further reading
- Bakker, Edwin. Forecasting the Unpredictable: A Review of Forecasts on Terrorism 2000 – 2012 (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism - The Hague, 2014)
- Burleigh, Michael. Blood and rage : a cultural history of terrorism. Harper, 2009.
- Chaliand, Gérard and Arnaud Blin, eds. The history of terrorism : from antiquity to al Qaeda. University of California Press, 2007.
- Coates, Susan W., Rosenthal, Jane, and Schechter, Daniel S. September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds. New York: Taylor and Francis, Inc., 2003.
- Crenshaw, Martha, ed. Terrorism in context. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
- Land, Isaac, ed., Enemies of humanity : the nineteenth-century war on terrorism. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
- Lee, Newton. Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness (2nd Edition). New York: Springer, 2015. ISBN 978-3-319-17243-9
- Lutz, James and Brenda Lutz. Terrorism : origins and evolution. Palgrave Macmillan, 2005
- Miller, Martin A. The foundations of modern terrorism : state, society and the dynamics of political violence. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
- Nairn, Tom; James, Paul (2005). Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism. London and New York: Pluto Press.
- Neria, Yuval, Gross, Raz, Marshall, Randall D., and Susser, Ezra. September 11, 2001: Treatment, Research and Public Mental Health in the Wake of a Terrorist Attack. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Stern, Jessica. The Ultimate Terrorists. First Harvard University Press Pbk. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000, cop. 1995. 214 p. ISBN 0-674-00394-2
- Terrorism, Law & Democracy: 10 years after 9/11, Canadian Institute for the Administration of Justice. ISBN 978-2-9809728-7-4.
- Jones, Sidney. Terrorism: myths and facts. Jakarta: International Crisis Group, 2013.
External links
Library resources about Terrorism |
- United Nations:Conventions on Terrorism
- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Conventions against terrorism". Archived from the original on 2007-08-05.
- UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention
- Terrorism and international humanitarian law, International Committee of the Red Cross
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