Tecumseh | |
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Born | c. 1768 Likely present Chillicothe, Ohio |
Died | October 5, 1813 (aged about 45) |
Cause of death | killed in the Battle of the Thames |
Resting place | unknown |
Nationality | Shawnee |
Known for | organizing Native American resistance to U.S. expansion |
Parent(s) | Puckeshinwau, Methoataaskee |
Relatives |
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Tecumseh (/tɪˈkʌmsə, tɪˈkʌmsi/ ti-KUM-sə, ti-KUM-see (c. 1768 – October 5, 1813) was a Shawnee chief, warrior, and orator who promoted Native American resistance to the expansion of the United States onto Native American lands. He traveled widely among Native tribes, proclaiming that Native Americans owned their lands in common, and urging tribes not cede more territory to the United States unless all tribes agreed. Although his efforts to unite Native Americans ended with his death in the War of 1812, he became an iconic folk hero in American, Indigenous, and Canadian history.[1]
Tecumseh was born in what is now Ohio at time when the far-flung Shawnees were reuniting in their Ohio Country homeland. During his childhood, the Shawnees lost territory to the expanding American colonies in a series of border wars. As a young war leader, Tecumseh joined Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket's war to defend against further American encroachment, which ended in defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 and the loss of most of Ohio in the 1795 Treaty of Greenville.
In the years that followed, Tecumseh's younger brother Tenskwatawa founded a religious movement, calling upon Native Americans to reject European influences and return to a traditional lifestyle. Tecumseh supported his brother's movement, and in 1808 they founded Prophetstown, a village near present-day Lafayette, Indiana, that grew into a large, multi-tribal community. Tecumseh traveled constantly, urging tribes to stop ceding land to the United States. In 1811, when Tecumseh was in the south recruiting allies, Americans under William Henry Harrison defeated Tenskwatawa at the Battle of Tippecanoe and destroyed Prophetstown.
After the outbreak of the War of 1812, Tecumseh joined his cause with the British, recruiting warriors and helping to capture Detroit in August 1812. He took part in an 1813 campaign in Ohio against Fort Meigs. When U.S. naval forces took control of Lake Erie in 1813, the British and their Native allies retreated into Upper Canada, where the American forces engaged them at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed.
Tecumseh is among the most celebrated Native American leaders in history. He was known as a eloquent orator who promoted tribal unity. He was also ambitious, willing to take risks, and make significant sacrifices to repel settlers from Native American lands. His death caused the pan-Indian alliance to collapse. Within a few years, the remaining tribal lands in the Old Northwest were ceded to the U.S. government. Most of the Indians eventually moved west, across the Mississippi River.
Early life
Tecumseh was born in Shawnee territory in what is now Ohio, between 1764 and 1771; the best evidence suggests a birthdate of around March 1768.[2] Shawnees pronounced his name as "Tecumtha."[3] He was born into the panther clan of the Kispoko division of the Shawnee tribe. Like most Shawnees, his name indicated his clan: one translation of his name from the Shawnee language is "I Cross the Way," a reference to a meteor associated with the panther clan.[2] Later stories claimed that Tecumseh was named after a shooting star that appeared at his birth, although his father and most of his siblings, as members of the panther clan, were named after the same meteor.[4]
Tecumseh was probably born in the Shawnee town of Chillicothe, along the Scioto River, near present-day Chillicothe, Ohio, or in a nearby Kispoko village.[2] A few years after Tecumseh's birth, Shawnees moved to the northwest, establishing a new Chillicothe (present Oldtown, Ohio). In the 20th century, people mistakenly identified this newer Chillicothe as Tecumseh's birthplace, unaware the town did not exist when Tecumseh was born.[2] As a result, the official Ohio historical marker designating Tecumseh's birthplace is 50 miles (80 km) from the actual location.[5]
Tecumseh's father, Puckeshinwau, was a Shawnee war chief of the Kispoko division.[6] Tecumseh's mother, Methoataaskee, belonged to the Pekowi division and the turtle clan.[6] Tecumseh was the fifth of at least eight children.[7] Tecumseh's parents met and married in what is now Alabama, where part of the Shawnee tribe had settled after being driven out of the Ohio County by the Iroquois in the 17th century Beaver Wars. Around 1759, Puckeshinwau and Methoataaskee moved to the Ohio County as part of a Shawnee effort to reunite in their traditional homeland.[8]
In 1763, the British Empire laid claim to the Ohio Country following its victory in the French and Indian War. That year, Puckeshinwau took part in Pontiac's War, a multi-tribal effort to counter British control of the region.[9] Tecumseh was born in the peaceful decade after Pontiac's War, a time in which Puckeshinwau likely became the chief of Kispoko town on the Scioto.[10] In a 1768 treaty, the Iroquois ceded land south of the Ohio River (including present Kentucky) to the British, a region the Shawnee and other tribes used for hunting. Shawnees attempted to organize a multi-tribal resistance against colonial occupation of the region, culminating in the 1774 Battle of Point Pleasant, in which Puckeshinwau was killed. After the battle, Shawnees ceded Kentucky to the American colonists.[11]
When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, many Shawnees allied themselves with the British, raiding into Kentucky in an effort to drive out the American colonists. [12] Tecumseh, too young to fight, was among those forced to relocate in the face of American counterraids. General George Rogers Clark, commander of the Kentucky militia, led a major expedition into Shawnee territory in 1780. Tecumseh may have witnessed the ensuing Battle of Piqua on August 8. After the Shawnees retreated, Clark burned their villages and crops. The Shawnees relocated to the northwest, along Great Miami River, but Clark returned in 1782 and destroyed those villages as well, forcing the Shawnees to retreat further north, near present Bellefontaine, Ohio.[13]
From warrior to chief
After the American Revolutionary War, the United States claimed the lands north of the Ohio River by right of conquest. In response, Indians convened a great intertribal conference at Lower Sandusky in the summer of 1783. Speakers, most notably Joseph Brant ((Mohawk), argued that Indians must unite to hold onto their lands. They put forth a doctrine that Indian lands were held in common by all tribes, and so no further land should be ceded to the United States without the consent of all the tribes. This idea made a strong impression on Tecumseh, just fifteen years old when he attended the conference. As an adult, he would become such a well-known advocate of this policy that some mistakenly thought it had originated with him.[14] The United States, however, insisted on dealing with the tribes individually, getting each to sign separate land treaties. In January 1786, Moluntha, the Shawnee head civil chief, signed the Treaty of Fort Finney, surrendering most of Ohio to the Americans.[15] Later that year, Moluntha was murdered by a Kentucky militiaman, initiating a new border war.[16]
Tecumseh, now about eighteen years-old, became a warrior under the tutelage of his older brother Cheeseekau.[17] Tecumseh participated in attacks on flatboats traveling down the Ohio River, carrying waves of immigrants into lands the Shawnees had lost. He was disturbed by the sight of prisoners being cruelly treated by the Shawnees, an early indication of his lifelong aversion to torture and cruelty for which he would later be celebrated.[18] In 1788, Tecumseh, Cheeseekau and their family moved westward, relocating near Cape Girardeau, Missouri. They hoped to be free of American settlers, only to find colonists moving there as well, so they did not stay long.[19]
In late 1789 or early 1790, Tecumseh traveled south with Cheeseekau to live with the Chickamauga Cherokees near Lookout Mountain in what is now Tennessee. Some Shawnees already lived among the Chickamaugas, who were fierce opponents of U.S. expansion. Cheeseekau led about forty Shawnees in raids against colonists; Tecumseh was presumably among them.[20] During his nearly two years among the Chickamaugas, Tecumseh probably had a daughter with a Cherokee woman; the relationship was brief and the child remained with her mother.[21]
In 1791, Tecumseh returned to the Ohio Country to take part in the Northwest Indian War as a minor war chief. He was inspired by the Indian confederacy that had been formed to fight the war, which provided a model for the confederacy he created years later.[22] He led a band of eight followers, including his younger brother Lalawethika, later known as Tenskwatawa. Tecumseh missed fighting in the major Indian victory on November 4 because he was hunting or scouting at the time.[23] The following year he took part in other skirmishes before rejoining Cheeseekau in Tennessee.[24] Tecumseh was with Cheeseekau when he was killed in an unsuccessful attack on Buchanan's Station near Nashville.[25] Tecumseh probably sought revenge for his brother's death, but the details are unknown.[26]
Tecumseh returned to the Ohio Country at the end of 1792 and fought in several more skirmishes.[27] In 1794, he fought in the Battle of Fallen Timbers, a bitter defeat for the Indians.[28] The Indian confederacy fell apart, especially after Blue Jacket, the most prominent Shawnee in the confederacy, agreed to make peace with the Americans.[29] Tecumseh did not attend the signing of the Treaty of Greenville (1795), in which about two-thirds of Ohio and portions of present-day Indiana were ceded to the United States.[30]
By 1796, Tecumseh was both the civil and war chief of a Kispoko band of about 50 warriors and 250 people.[31] His sister Tecumapease was the band's principal female chief. Tecumseh took a wife, Mamate, and had a son, Paukeesaa, born about 1796. Their marriage did not last. Tecumapese raised Paukeesaa from the age of seven or eight.[32] Tecumseh's band moved to various locations before settling in 1798 close to Delaware Indians, near present Anderson, Indiana, where he would live for the next eight years.[33] He married twice more during this time. His third marriage, to White Wing, lasted until 1807.[34]
Tenskwatawa and Prophetstown
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20210120212433im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Ten-sq%C3%BAat-a-way.jpg/270px-Ten-sq%C3%BAat-a-way.jpg)
Tecumseh's younger brother, Lalawethika ("He Makes A Loud Noise" or "Noise Maker"), who later took the new name of Tenskwatawa ("The Open Door" or "One with Open Mouth") and became known as "The Prophet" or "The Shawnee Prophet". Lalawethika's early years as a depressed and isolated young man were marked by numerous failures and alcoholism.[35] However, around 1805 Tenskwatawa began preaching and soon emerged as a powerful and influential religious leader of a spiritual revival. The Prophet's beliefs were based on the earlier teachings of the Lenape prophets, Scattamek and Neolin, who predicted a coming apocalypse that would destroy the European American settlers.[36]
The Prophet attracted a large following among Native Americans who had suffered from epidemics and dispossession of their lands. He urged them to reject the European American way of life and to return to their traditional ways. The Prophet wanted Native Americans to reject the white man's customs, which included firearms, consumption of alcohol, and European-style clothing. He also urged his followers to pay traders only half the value of their debts and to refrain from ceding any more lands to the U.S. government.
Tecumseh eventually settled near Greenville, Ohio, in a Native American community that Tenskwatawa formed with his followers along the Whitewater River in western Ohio in 1805.[37] Tenskwatawa, who proved to be harsh, even brutal, in his treatment of those who opposed him and his teachings accused his detractors and anyone who associated with European Americans of witchcraft.[38][39] His teachings also led to rising tensions between the settlers and his followers. Opposing Tenskwatawa was the Shawnee leader Black Hoof, who was working to maintain a peaceful relationship with the United States.[36]
The earliest record of Tecumseh's interaction with the European Americans occurred in 1807, when U.S. "Indian Agent" William Wells met with Blue Jacket and other Shawnee leaders in Greenville to determine their intentions after the recent murder of a European settler. Tecumseh, who was among those who spoke with Wells and assured him that his band of Shawnee intended to remain at peace and wanted only to follow the will of the Great Spirit and his prophet. According to Wells's report, Tecumseh also told him that the Prophet intended to move with his followers deeper into the frontier, away from European American settlements.[40] By 1808, as tensions between the Native Americans at Greenville and the encroaching European settlers increased, Black Hoof demanded that Tenskwatawa and his followers leave the area. According to Tenskwatawa's later account, Tecumseh was already contemplating a pan-tribal confederacy to counter European American expansion into Native American-held lands.[41]
In 1808 the Prophet and Tecumseh were leaders of the group that decided to move further west and establish a village near the confluence of the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers (near Battle Ground, north of present-day Lafayette, Indiana). Although the site was in Miami tribal territory and their chief, Little Turtle, warned the group not to settle there, the Shawnee ignored the warning and moved into the region; the Miami left them alone. The European Americans called the Native American settlement Prophetstown, after the Shawnee spiritual leader. The village gained significance as a central point in the political and military alliance that was forming around Tecumseh, a natural and charismatic leader.
As Tenskwatawa's religious teachings became more widely known, he attracted numerous followers to Prophetstown that included members of other tribes. The village soon expanded to form a large, multi-tribal community in the southwestern Great Lakes region that served as a major center of Native American culture, a temporary barrier to the encroaching European settlers' westward movement, and a base to expel the whites and their culture from the territory. The community attracted thousands of Algonquin-speaking Native Americans and became an intertribal, religious stronghold within the Indiana Territory for 3,000 inhabitants.
Tecumseh emerged as the primary leader and war chief of the confederation of warriors at Prophetstown. Recruits came from an estimated fourteen different tribal groups, although the majority were members of Shawnee, Delaware, and Potawatomi tribes.[42][43] The growing community at Prophetstown also caused increasing concerns among European Americans in the area to fear that Tecumseh was forming an army of warriors to destroy their settlements.[44]
In 1811 Tenskwatawa precipitated the Battle of Tippecanoe when he was overcome by his power and defied Tecumseh's orders to evacuate if Harrison approached the village of Prophetstown. Tenskwatawa claimed to have had a vision and spoke to the tribes "in the voice of Moneto", their god, to attack as the white men could not hurt them, and that no one could die or would feel harm. The loss of this battle brought an end to the Prophet's influence among the Native American confederacy and caused many tribes to lose faith in Tecumseh's great plan of a strong Indian alliance.[45]
Tecumseh's War
![]() Portraits of Pushmataha (left) and Tecumseh (right). "These white Americans ... give us fair exchange, their cloth, their guns, their tools, implements, and other things which the Choctaws need but do not make ... So in marked contrast with the experience of the Shawnee, it will be seen that the whites and Indians in this section are living on friendly and mutually beneficial terms." — Pushmataha, 1811[46] |
Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison,[note 1] the two principal adversaries in Tecumseh's War, had both been junior participants in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) at the end of the Northwest Indian War. Although Tecumseh was not among the signers of the Treaty of Greenville (1795) that ceded much of present-day Ohio, long inhabited by the Shawnee and other Native Americans, to the U.S. government, many of the Native American leaders in the region accepted the Greenville treaty's terms. For the next ten years pan-tribal resistance to European American hegemony faded.
After the Treaty of Greenville was signed, most of the Shawnee in Ohio settled at the Shawnee village of Wapakoneta on the Auglaize River, where Black Hoof, a senior chief who had signed the treaty, was their leader. Little Turtle, a Miami war chief, a participant in the "Northwest Indian War", and a signer of the treaty at Greenville, lived in his village along the Eel River. Black Hoof and Little Turtle urged cultural adaptation and accommodation with the United States. The tribes of the region also participated in several additional treaties, including the Treaty of Vincennes (1803 and 1804) and the Treaty of Grouseland (1805), that ceded Native American-held land in southern Indiana to the European Americans. The treaties granted the Native Americans annuity payments and other reimbursements in exchange for their lands.[49]
Rising tensions
In September 1809, William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, negotiated the Treaty of Fort Wayne in which a delegation of Native Americans in the Wabash River area ceded 2.5 to 3 million acres (10,000 to 12,000 km2) of land in what is present-day Indiana and Illinois. The validity of the treaty negotiations were challenged with claims that the U.S. president, and thus the U.S. government, had not authorized them. The negotiations also involved what some historians have described as bribes, which included offering large subsidies to the tribes and their chiefs, and liberal distribution of liquor before the negotiations began.[50]
Tecumseh and his brother, Tenskwatawa, who adamantly wanted to retain their independence from the European Americans, denounced the treaty, became openly hostile to those who had signed it, including other tribal leaders, and began recruiting members to their pan-Native American alliance.[51] Tecumseh emerged as a prominent war chief and leader among the Native Americans who opposed the treaty. Although the Shawnee had no claim on the land ceded to the U.S. government under the Treaty of Fort Wayne, he was angered because many of those who lived in Prophetstown were Piankeshaw, Kickapoo, and Wea, the primary inhabitants of the ceded lands. Tecumseh revived an idea advocated in previous years by the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant that stated that Native American land was owned in common by all.[52]
Tecumseh was not ready to confront the United States directly. His primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne. Tecumseh, an impressive orator, began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join his resistance movement.[53] He insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegal and asked Harrison to nullify it. Tecumseh also warned that the European Americans should not attempt to settle on the ceded lands and claimed that "the only way to stop this evil [loss of land] is for the red man to unite in claiming a common and equal right in the land, as it was first, and should be now, for it was never divided".[54]
Harrison's Confrontation
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20210120212433im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Tecumseh_ante_Harrison.jpeg/220px-Tecumseh_ante_Harrison.jpeg)
Tecumseh met with William Henry Harrison in 1810 and in 1811 to demand that the U.S. government rescind its land cession treaties with the Shawnee and other tribes. Harrison refused. In mid-August 1810, Tecumseh led 400 armed warriors from Prophetstown to confront Harrison at Grouseland, the territorial governor's home at Vincennes. The warriors' appearance startled the townspeople and the gathering quickly became hostile after Harrison rejected Tecumseh's demands. Harrison argued that individual tribes could have relations with the U.S. government and claimed that the tribes of the area did not welcome Tecumseh's interference.[55] Tecumseh's response to Harrison's remarks included his impassioned rebuttal:
Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the great sea, as well as the earth? Did not the Great Spirit make them all for the use of his children? How can we have confidence in the white people?[56]
Afterwards, some witnesses to the gathering claimed that Tecumseh had incited the warriors to kill Harrison, who responded by drawing his sword from its sheath at his side. The small garrison defending the town quickly moved to protect the territorial governor; the Potawatomi chief, Winnemac, stood and countered Tecumseh's arguments to the group, urging the warriors to leave peacefully. As the warriors departed, Tecumseh warned Harrison that unless the Treaty of Fort Wayne was rescinded, he would seek an alliance with the British.[57]
In July 1811, Tecumseh, accompanied by an estimated 300 warriors, met with Harrison at his home in Vincennes. Tecumseh told Harrison that the Shawnee and their Indiana allies wanted to remain at peace with the United States; however, their differences had to be resolved. The meeting proved to be unproductive. Harrison believed that the Native Americans were "simply looking forward to a quarrel".[58]
Tecumseh's pan-Native American campaign
Tecumseh's pan-Native American movement established a model for future resistance, as he combined indigenous spirituality and politics in order to create unity and an incentive to resist amongst the native people, yet respected the religions and languages of each nation.[59] Despite Tecumseh's efforts, most of the southern Native American nations rejected his appeals, especially the Choctaw chief, Pushmataha, who opposed Tecumseh's pan-Native American alliance and insisted upon adhering to the terms of the peace treaties that had been signed with the U.S. government.[60] However, a faction among the Creeks, who came to be known as the Red Sticks, responded to Tecumseh's call to arms, which led to the Creek War.[57] Tecumseh, whose name meant "shooting star", also told the Creeks that the arrival of a comet signaled his coming and that the confederacy and its allies took it as an omen of good luck.[citation needed]
Battle of Tippecanoe
When Harrison heard from intelligence that Tecumseh was away, he reported to the U.S. Department of War that Tecumseh was putting "A finishing stroke upon his work. I hope, however, before his return that that part of the work which he considered complete will be demolished and even its foundation rooted up."[61] Harrison decided to strike first, while Tecumseh was absent, and force the Indians from Prophetstown, which he thought posed a threat to the region, and destroy the village.[44][62] Harrison marched from Vincennes on September 26, 1811, with more than 1,200 men toward Prophetstown, where he intended to intimidate the Prophet's followers and weaken the spiritual leader's influence.[63]
In the meantime, Tenskwatawa thought that a skirmish with Harrison's men would persuade more Indians to join the alliance. Tenskwatawa decided to make the first strike against Harrison's army instead of following through on an agreement that he had previously made with Tecumseh to evacuate Prophetstown if the American military approached the village. Prior to the battle, the Prophet claimed that they would not be harmed if they attacked the white men and the warriors would not die.[44][64]
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20210120212433im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/New_Madrid_Erdbeben.jpg/220px-New_Madrid_Erdbeben.jpg)
On November 6, 1811, when Harrison and about 1,000 of his men approached Prophetstown, the Prophet sent a messenger to request a meeting with Harrison to negotiate. Harrison agreed to meet with him the following day and encamped with his army on a nearby hill about two miles from Prophetstown. In the pre-dawn hours on November 7, an estimated 600 to 700 warriors launched a surprise attack on Harrison's camp to initiate the Battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison's men held their ground in the two-hour engagement, but the Prophet's warriors withdrew from the field and abandoned Prophetstown after the battle. The Americans burned the village to the ground the following day and returned to Vincennes.[65][66]
An American Indian named Shabonee later explained in his firsthand account of the events that Harrison initially intended to negotiate, but the Indians were prepared to fight. The Shawnee reported that the young warriors had said, "We are ten to their one. If they stay upon one side, we will let them alone. If they cross the Wabash we will take their scalps or drive them into the river."[67] Shabonee also asserted that Tenskwatawa attacked at the urging of Canadians and "the battle of Tippecanoe was the work of white men who came from Canada and urged us to make war".[68]
The battle did not end the Indians' resistance to the Americans. Despite the loss at Prophetstown, Tecumseh continued his role as the military leader of the pan-Indian alliance and began to rebuild its membership. However, many tribes lost faith and his great plan to establish a stronger Indian alliance was never fulfilled.[45] The battle was also a severe blow for Tenskwatawa's prestige. He lost his influence among the Indians, as well as the confidence of his brother. The Prophet became an outcast and eventually moved to Canada, where he served as one of Tecumseh's subordinates during the War of 1812.[69][70]
When the Americans went to war with the British in 1812, Tecumseh's War became a part of that struggle.[65] On December 16, 1811, the New Madrid earthquake shook the South and the Midwest. Although the interpretation of this event varied from tribe to tribe, one consensus was universally accepted: the powerful earthquake had to have meant something. For many tribes in the pan-Indian alliance, it meant that Tecumseh and the Prophet must be supported.[71]
War of 1812
Siege of Detroit
Tecumseh rallied his confederacy and allied his with the British army invading the Northwest Territory from Upper Canada. He joined British Major-General Sir Isaac Brock in the Siege of Detroit, helping to force the city's surrender in August 1812. At one point in the battle, as Brock advanced to a point just out of range of Detroit's guns, Tecumseh had his approximately 400 warriors parade out from a nearby wood and circled back around to repeat the maneuver, making it appear that there were many more men under his command than was actually the case. Brigadier General William Hull, the fort commander, surrendered in fear of a massacre. The victory was of a great strategic value to the British allies.[72]
Tecumseh was made a brigadier general in the British army as the commander in chief of its Indian allies. In an effort to honor Tecumseh for his help during the siege, Major-General Henry Procter, the next British commander in the region, awarded him a sash, but Tecumseh returned it "with respectful contempt".[73]
The victory at Detroit was reversed a little over a year later, when Commodore Perry's victory on Lake Erie in the summer of 1813 cut the British supply lines. Along with William Henry Harrison's successful defense of Fort Meigs, which created a staging area for the recapture of Fort Detroit, the British found themselves in an indefensible position and had to withdraw from the city. They burned all public buildings in Detroit and retreated into Upper Canada along the Thames Valley. Tecumseh sought continued British support in order to defend tribal lands against the Americans. However, a much reinforced Harrison led an invasion of Canada.
Siege of Fort Meigs
The siege began on May 5, 1813, when a small British force of less than 1,000 men under the command of Major-General Procter, the British commander on the Detroit frontier, and an estimated 1,250 Indian warriors led by Tecumseh and the Wyandot leader, Roundhead, attempted to capture Fort Meigs in northwestern Ohio.[74] The British hoped that the effort would delay an American offensive attack against Detroit, which the British had captured in 1812. The American force of 1,100 men suffered heavy casualties, but the British and their Indian allies failed to capture Fort Meigs. On May 7, terms were arranged providing for exchange or parole of British and American prisoners.[note 2]
After the initial battle, some of the Indian warriors succeeded in killing several American prisoners before Tecumseh, Lieutenant Colonel Matthew Elliott, and Captain Thomas McKee of the Indian Department persuaded them to stop.[78] Tecumseh reportedly asked Procter why he had not stopped the massacre. Procter, who complained that the Indians could not be made to obey, replied, "Begone! You are unfit to command. Go and put on petticoats."[79] According to another account of the incident, Tecumseh supposedly rebuked Procter with the remark, "I conquer to save; you to kill."[80] Eyewitnesses estimated between twelve and fourteen Americans were killed in the massacre.[81] Tecumseh's actions during the event are thought to be a major reason why he later became a hero also in the United States and is considered a "noble savage".[82]
Battle of the Thames
Major-General Procter did not have the same working relationship with Tecumseh as his predecessor Isaac Brock. Tecumseh and Proctor disagreed over tactics. While Procter favored withdrawal into Canada to avoid further battles, leaving the Americans to suffer through the hardships of winter, Tecumseh was more eager to launch an immediate and decisive action to defeat the Americans and allow his warriors to retake their homelands in the northwest.[83] Meanwhile, Harrison pursued the retreating British and allied tribes. When Procter's forces failed to appear at Chatham in Upper Canada (although he had promised Tecumseh that he would make a stand there against the Americans), Tecumseh reluctantly moved his men to meet up with Procter's troops near Moraviantown. Tecumseh informed Procter that he would withdraw no farther and announced that if the British wanted his continued help, they needed to wait for the arrival of Harrison's army and fight. At the conclusion of an impassioned speech Tecumseh declared:
Our lives are in the hands of the Great Spirit. We are determined to defend our lands, and if it be his will, we wish to leave our bones upon them.[84]
On October 5, 1813, the Americans attacked and won a victory over the British and Native Americans at the Battle of the Thames, near Moraviantown. Tecumseh was killed.[note 3] After the battle, most of the Indian confederacy surrendered to Harrison at Detroit and returned to their homes.[87][note 4]
Death
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20210120212433im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Death_of_Tecumseh.jpg/250px-Death_of_Tecumseh.jpg)
The circumstances surrounding Tecumseh's death are unclear due to several conflicting accounts. Some sources claim that Colonel Richard Johnson killed Tecumseh during a cavalry charge.[89] However, the Wyandott historian, Peter D. Clarke, offered a different explanation after talking with Indians who had fought in the battle: "[A] Potawatamie brave, who, on perceiving an American officer (supposed to be Colonel Johnson) on horse ... turned to tomahawk his pursuer, but was shot down by him with his pistol .... The fallen Potawatamie brave was probably taken for Tecumseh by some of Harrison's infantry, and mutilated soon after the battle."[90]
John Sugden, who provided an in-depth examination of Tecumseh's death in his book, Tecumseh's Last Stand (1985), suggested that crediting Johnson for taking Tecumseh's life would have, and did, greatly enhanced Johnson's political career. In 1836, when Johnson was elected U.S. Vice President, and again in 1840, his campaign supporters used the slogan, "Rumpsey Dumpsey, Rumpsey Dumpsey, Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh".[89][91] However, after an exhaustive study, Sugden could not conclude that Johnson killed Tecumseh.[92]
In another account, "A half-Indian and half-white, named William Caldwell ... overtook and passed Tecumseh, who was walking along slowly, using his rifle for a staff—when asked by Caldwell if he was wounded, he replied in English, 'I am shot'—Caldwell noticed where a rifle bullet had penetrated his breast, through his buckskin hunting coat. His body was found by his friends, where he had laid [sic] down to die, untouched, within the vicinity of the battle ground ..."[93] Several of Harrison's men also claimed to have killed Tecumseh; however, none of them were present when Tecumseh was mortally wounded.[93]
Other sources have credited William Whitley as the person responsible for Tecumseh's death, but Sugden argued that Whitley had been killed in battle prior to Tecumseh's death.[94] In his 1929 autobiography, James A. Drain Sr., Whitley's grandson, continued to claim that his grandfather single-handedly shot and killed Tecumseh. As Drain explained it, Whitley was mortally wounded, but he saw Tecumseh spring towards him, "intent upon taking for himself a scalp", and drew his gun "to center his sights upon the red man's breast. And as he fired, he fell and the Indian as well, each gone where good fighting men go."[95]
Edwin Seaborn, who recorded an oral history from Saugeen First Nation in the 1930s, provides another account of Tecumseh's death. Pe-wak-a-nep, who was seventy years old in 1938, describes his grandfather's eyewitness account of Tecumseh's last battle. Pe-wak-a-nep explained that Tecumseh was fighting on a bridge when his lance snapped. Tecumseh "fell after 'a long knife' was run through his shoulder from behind".[96]
Sugden concluded that Tecumseh was killed during the fierce fighting in the opening engagement between the Indians and Johnson's mounted regiment. Shortly after his death, the Indians retreated from the battle and headed toward Lake Ontario. The details of how he died remain unclear. Tecumseh's body was identified by British prisoners after the battle and examined by some Americans who knew him and could confirm that its injuries were consistent with earlier wounds that Tecumseh has suffered to his legs (a broken thigh and a bullet wound). The body had a fatal wound to the left breast and also showed damage to the head by a blow, possibly inflicted after his death.[97]
According to Sugden, Tecumseh's body had been defiled, although later accounts were likely exaggerated. Sugden also discounted some conflicting Indian accounts that indicated his body had been removed from the battlefield before it could be mutilated. From his analysis of the evidence, Sugden firmly claimed that Tecumseh's remains, mutilated beyond recognition, were left on the battlefield.[98] Sugden's Tecumseh's Last Stand (1985) also recounted varied accounts of Tecumseh's burial and the still unknown location of his gravesite.[99]
Legacy
Tecumseh was an energetic warrior, a respected war chief, and a strong and eloquent orator, whose lifelong goal was to repel the Americans from Indian lands. He and his brother, Tenskwatawa, founded Prophetstown, a large, multi-tribal community that attracted thousands and became a major center of Indian culture, a temporary barrier to encroaching settlers, and a central point for the political and military alliance that was forming around Tecumseh. With a base of supporters in Prophetstown, Tecumseh became the principal organizer and driving force of a multi-tribal confederacy of American Indians. Tecumseh's message promoted tribal unity; he adamantly insisted that tribal lands belong collectively to all Indians.[45][100]
After the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, Tecumseh resumed his role as the military leader of the pan-Indian confederation, but the battle ended his plan to form a larger, pan-Indian alliance. Tecumseh and the Indian resistance movement allied with the British against the Americans during the War of 1812, but his death at the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and the end of War of 1812 led to the collapse of the alliance. Over the next several years the Indians ceded their remaining land east of the Mississippi River to the U.S. government. As most of the Indians removed to reservation land in the western United States, white settlers claimed the former Indian lands in the Old Northwest Territory for themselves.[45][100]
Tecumseh is considered "one of the most sophisticated and celebrated Indian leaders in all history".[101] However, his weaknesses as an ambitious, impulsive, and arrogant leader willing to make significant sacrifices, including risking the lives of his followers, impacted the Indian resistance movement. Despite his relentless efforts, the pan-Indian alliance was not successful in achieving its goal of retaining control of Indian lands in the Old Northwest Territory.[102][103]
Consequences for Native Americans
Tecumseh's death was a decisive blow to the American Indians. It had larger implications during negotiations for the Treaty of Ghent (1814). During the treaty process, the British called for the U.S. government to return lands in Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan to the Indians. For decades the British strategy had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion, but the Americans refused to consider the British proposal and it was dropped.[104] Although Article IX of the treaty included provisions to restore to native inhabitants "all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811", the provisions were unenforceable.[105]
Honors and memorials
Canada
Tecumseh is honored in Canada as a hero and military commander who played a major role in Canada's successful repulsion of an American invasion in the War of 1812, which, among other things, eventually led to Canada's nationhood in 1867 with the British North America Act. Among the tributes, Tecumseh is ranked 37th in The Greatest Canadian list. The Canadian naval reserve unit HMCS Tecumseh is based in Calgary, Alberta. The Royal Canadian Mint released a two dollar coin on June 18, 2012 and will release four quarters, celebrating the Bicentennial of the War of 1812. The second quarter in the series, was released in November 2012 and features Tecumseh.[106]
The Ontario Heritage Foundation & Kent Military Reenactment Society erected a plaque in Tecumseh Park, 50 William Street North, Chatham, Ontario, reading: "On this site, Tecumseh, a Shawnee Chief, who was an ally of the British during the war of 1812, fought against American forces on October 4, 1813. Tecumseh was born in 1768 and became an important organizer of native resistance to the spread of white settlement in North America. The day after the fighting here, he was killed in the Battle of Thames near Moraviantown. Tecumseh park was named to commemorate strong will and determination."[107]
He is also honored by a massive portrait which hangs in the Royal Canadian Military Institute. The unveiling of the work by Gertrude Steiger Kearns CM, commissioned under the patronage of Kathryn Langley Hope and Trisha Langley, took place at the Toronto-based RCMI on October 29, 2008.[108]
A replica of the War of 1812 warship HMS Tecumseh was built in 1994 and displayed in Penetanguishene, Ontario, near the raised wreck of the original HMS Tecumseh. The original HMS Tecumseh was built in 1815 to be used in defense against the Americans. First on Lake Erie, she moved to Lake Huron in 1817. She sank in Penetanguishene harbor in 1828, and was raised in 1953.[109]
U.S. Military
The United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, has Tecumseh Court, which is located outside Bancroft Hall's front entrance, and features a bust of Tecumseh. The bust is often decorated to celebrate special days. The bust was originally meant to represent Tamanend, an Indian chief from the 17th century who was known as a lover of peace and friendship, but the Academy's midshipmen preferred the warrior Tecumseh, and have, since the late 19th century, referred to the statue by his name.[110]
Four ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Tecumseh.
- The first USS Tecumseh (1863), was a Canonicus-class monitor, commissioned on April 19, 1864. It was lost with almost all hands on August 5, at the Battle of Mobile Bay.
- The second USS Tecumseh (YT-24), was a tugboat, originally named Edward Luckenbach, purchased by the Navy in 1898 and renamed. She served off and on until she was struck from the Navy list ca. 1945.
- The third USS Tecumseh (YT-273), was a Pessacus-class tugboat, commissioned in 1943 and struck from service in 1975.
- The fourth USS Tecumseh (SSBN-628), was a James Madison-class ballistic missile submarine, commissioned in 1964 and struck in 1993.
Persons' names
Union Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman was given the middle name of Tecumseh because "my father ... had caught a fancy for the great chief of the Shawnees".[111] Another Civil War general, Napoleon Jackson Tecumseh Dana, also bore the name of the Shawnee leader.
Town names
A number of towns have been named in honor of Tecumseh, including those in the states of Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and the province of Ontario, as well as the town and township of New Tecumseth, Ontario, and Mount Tecumseh in New Hampshire.
School names
Schools named in honor of Tecumseh include, in the United States: Tecumseh Junior – Senior High in Hart Township, Warrick County, just outside Lynnville, Indiana. Lafayette Tecumseh Junior High in Lafayette, Indiana. Tecumseh-Harrison Elementary[112] in Vincennes, Indiana. Tecumseh Acres Elementary, Tecumseh Middle and Tecumseh High in Tecumseh, Michigan.[113] Tecumseh Elementary in Farmingville, New York. Tecumseh Elementary in Jamesville, New York. Tecumseh Middle and Tecumseh High in Bethel Township, Clark County near New Carlisle, Ohio and their district, the Tecumseh Local School District. Tecumseh Elementary in Xenia Township, Greene County near Xenia, Ohio. Tecumseh Middle[114] and Tecumseh High in Tecumseh, Oklahoma. And in Canada: Tecumseh Elementary[115] in Vancouver. Tecumseh Public[116] in Burlington, Ontario. Tecumseh Public School in Chatham, Ontario.[citation needed] Tecumseh Public School in London, Ontario.[citation needed] Tecumseh Senior Public[117] in Scarborough, Ontario.
Sculptures
In Canada, the Royal Ontario Museum exhibits a bust of Tecumseh created by Hamilton MacCarthy in 1896.
A life-size equestrian statue of Tecumseh along with a dismounted figure of British Major General Sir Isaac Brock, both created by Canadian sculptor Mark Williams, was unveiled in Sandwich Towne, a neighborhood in Windsor, Ontario, on September 7, 2018. David Morris, who frequently portrayed Tecumseh during War of 1812 bicentennial events, was the model for Tecumseh.
German sculptor Ferdinand Pettrich (1798–1872) studied under the neo-classicist Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen in Rome and moved to the United States in 1835. He was especially impressed by the Indians. He modelled The Dying Tecumseh ca. 1837–1846; it was finished 1856 in marble and copper alloy. The sculpture was put on display in the U.S. Capitol, where a stereoscopic photograph was taken of it in the later 1860s; in 1916 it was transferred to the Smithsonian American Art Museum.[118]
In recent years, Peter Wolf Toth has created the Trail of the Whispering Giants, a series of sculptures honoring Native Americans. He donated one work devoted to Tecumseh to the City of Vincennes, which was Indiana's territorial capital in the years around 1810, where Tecumseh confronted governor William Henry Harrison, and in the area of which Tecumseh's war then happened and the War of 1812 started.[citation needed] In Lafayette, Indiana, Tecumseh appears along with the Marquis de Lafayette and Harrison in a pediment on the Tippecanoe County Courthouse (1882).[119]
Just west of Portsmouth, Ohio, there is a wood carving of the aged Tecumseh in Shawnee State Park's Shawnee Lodge and Conference Center.[citation needed]
In popular culture
- A twelve-part comic book version of the Orson Scott Card novel, Red Prophet. The cover of one of the issues of the comic book series was a copy of a painting featuring Tecumseh by John Buxton; the painting had been commissioned by the Heritage Center of Clark County, Ohio.[120] Tecumseh features prominently in the novel, where his name is spelled "Ta-Kumsaw."
- The outdoor drama Tecumseh![121] is performed near Chillicothe, Ohio, and was written by novelist/historian Allan W. Eckert.[122]
- Tecumseh was a featured character in The Battle of Tippecanoe Outdoor Drama held in Battle Ground, Indiana, during the summers of 1989 and 1990.[123]
- Tecumseh The Last Warrior (1995)
- Tecumseh (1972) East German movie, Tecumseh play by Gojko Mitic
References
Notes
- ^ In 1801 William Henry Harrison became the first governor of the Indiana Territory and was elected president of the United States in 1840.[48]
- ^ The British official casualties for the siege of Fort Meigs were 101; their Indian allies suffered 19 casualties. The total American casualties in the siege were 986. About 630 Americans were captured, compared to 40 British.[75][76][77]
- ^ The Prophet, who observed the battle from a position behind the British line, fled on horseback after the initial charge from the American forces and remained in exile in Canada. He did not return to the United States until 1824.[85][86]
- ^ Not all tribes surrendered. Among them were the Kickapoo who had followed Tecumseh to Canada. In August 1816 more than 150 Kickapoo were still living in the Prophet's settlement at Amherstberg, where they continued their private war against the United States. Not until 1819 did the entire Canadian band of Kickapoos return south.[88]
Citations
- ^ J. M. Bumsted (2009). The peoples of Canada: a pre-Confederation history. Oxford U.P. p. 244. ISBN 9780195431018. Archived from the original on April 27, 2016. Retrieved November 12, 2015.
- ^ a b c d Sugden 1997, p. 22.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 22, 415n19.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 14, 23.
- ^ Cozzens 2020, p. 445n14.
- ^ a b Sugden 1997, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Edmunds 2007, p. 17.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 16–19.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 19.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 20–22.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 25–29.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 30.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 42–44.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 48–49, 75.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 57–59.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 61.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 81.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 63.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 64–66.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 73–75.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 76.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 82–86.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 87–90.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 91.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 92.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 94.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 98–99.
- ^ Sugden 1997, p. 100.
- ^ Sugden 1997, pp. 102–03.
- ^ Cayton, 1996 & 205-09.
- ^ a b Owens, 2007 & 210–211.
- ^ See Edmunds (1985), p. 34.
- ^ See Cayton (1996), p. 207–208.
- ^ See Edmunds (1985), p. 39.
- ^ See Sugden (1998), p. 4–7 .
- ^ See Sugden (1998), p. 9 .
- ^ See Owens (2007), p. 210.
- ^ "Shawnee" in Encyclopedia of North American Indians. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1996. Archived from the original on August 20, 2008. Retrieved May 7, 2020.
- ^ a b c Linda C. Gugin; James E. St. Clair, eds. (2015). Indiana's 200: The People Who Shaped the Hoosier State. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-87195-387-2.
- ^ a b c d See Gugin & St. Clair (2006), p. 347 .
- ^ William R. Carmack (1979). Indian Oratory: A Collection of Famous Speeches by Noted Indian Chieftains. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780806115757. Archived from the original on April 27, 2016. Retrieved November 12, 2015.
- ^ Frederick Turner III (1978) [1973]. "Poetry and Oratory". The Portable North American Indian Reader. Penguin Book. pp. 246–47. ISBN 0-14-015077-3.
- ^ See Gugin & St. Clair (2006), p. 18, 25 .
- ^ See Cayton (1996), p. 210–212.
- ^ "Treaty with the Delawares, Etc., 1809". Indiana Historical Bureau. Archived from the original on July 21, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
- ^ See Cayton (1996), p. 216–217.
- ^ See Owens (2007), p. 203.
- ^ See Owens (2007), p. 209.
- ^ Theodore Steinberg (1996). "5("Three-D Deeds: The Rise of Air Rights in New York")". Slide Mountain, or, The Folly of Owning Nature. Berkeley: University of California Press. OCLC 39621653.
- ^ A. J. Langguth (2006). Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 165. ISBN 0-7432-2618-6.
- ^ Frederick Turner III (1973). "Poetry and Oratory". The Portable North American Indian Reader. Penguin Books. pp. 245–246. ISBN 0-14-015077-3.
- ^ a b See Langguth (2006), p. 167 .
- ^ See Cayton (1996), pp. 220–221.
- ^ 1939-, Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. An indigenous peoples' history of the United States. Boston. ISBN 0807057835. OCLC 868199534.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
- ^ J. Wesley Whicker (December 1921). "Shabonee's Account of Tippecanoe". Indiana Magazine of History. Bloomington: Indiana University. 17 (4): 317, 321. Archived from the original on February 10, 2018. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
- ^ Reed Beard (1911). The Battle of Tippecanoe: Historical sketches of the famous field upon which General William Henry Harrison won renown that aided him in reaching the presidency; lives of the Prophet and Tecumseh, with many interesting incidents of their rise and overthrow. The campaign of 1888 and election of General Benjamin Harrison (4th ed.). Chicago: Hammond Press. p. 44. Archived from the original on April 10, 2014. Retrieved May 11, 2014.
- ^ See Madison (2017), p. 41 .
- ^ See Cayton (1996), p. 221.
- ^ See Edmunds (1985), p. 105, 110–111.
- ^ a b See Langguth (2006), p. 168 .
- ^ See Cayton (1996), p. 222.
- ^ See Whicker, "Shabonee's Account of Tippecanoe", p. 354.
- ^ Whicker, J. Wesley (April 1921). "Shabonee"s Account of Tippecanoe". Indiana Magazine of History. 17: 356.
- ^ See Cayton (1996), p. 224.
- ^ See Madison & Sandweiss (2014), p. 15 .
- ^ John Ehle (1988). Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. pp. 102–4. ISBN 0385239548. (Page numbers may be for a different printing.)
- ^ Pierre Burton (1980). The Invasion of Canada. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. pp. 177–182.
- ^ John Wesley Whicker (December 1922). "Tecumseh and Pushmataha". Indiana Magazine of History. Indiana University, Department of History. 18 (4): 324, 327. Archived from the original on February 10, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
- ^ John R. Elting (1995). Amateurs to Arms: A Military History of the War of 1812. New York: Da Capo Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-306-80653-3.
- ^ Alec R. Gilpin (1958). The War of 1812 in the Old Northwest (1968 reprint ed.). East Lansing: The Michigan State University Press. p. 189.
- ^ William James (1818). A Full and Correct Account of the Military Occurrences of the Late War between Great Britain and the United States of America. I. London. pp. 188, 199–200. ISBN 0-665-35743-5.
- ^ Ernest Cruikshank (1971) [1902]. The Documentary History of the Campaign upon the Niagara Frontier in the Year 1813. Part I: January to June, 1813. New York: Arno Press. p. 297. ISBN 0-405-02838-5.
- ^ Sandy Antal (1997). A Wampum Denied: Proct[e]r's War of 1812. Carleton University Press. p. 226. ISBN 0-87013-443-4.
- ^ See Gilpin, p. 187 .[full citation needed]
- ^ See Sugden (1998), p. 337 .
- ^ See Sugden (1998), p. 335 .
- ^ Norman K. Risjord (2001). Representative Americans: The Revolutionary Generation. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-7425-2075-2.
- ^ See Langguth (2006), p. 196 .
- ^ Benjamin Bussey Thatcher (1832). Indian Biography, or An historical account of those individuals who have been distinguished among the North American natives as orators, warriors, statesmen and other remarkable characters. II. New York: J. and J. Harper. p. 237.
- ^ See Gugin & St. Clair (2015), p. 347–348 .
- ^ See Madison (2014), p. 43 .
- ^ See Langguth (2006), p. 206 .
- ^ Arrell Morgan Gibson (1963). The Kickapoos: Lords of the Middle Border. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0-8061-1264-6.
- ^ a b Mark O. Hatfield, with the Senate Historical Office (1997). "Richard Mentor Johnson (1837–1841)" (PDF). Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 121–31. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 14, 2017. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
- ^ Charles Hamilton, ed. (1950). Cry of the Thunderbird: The American Indian's Own Story. New York: Macmillan Company. p. 162.
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 136–181.
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 145.
- ^ a b Peter Dooyentate Clarke (1870). Origin and traditional history of the Wyandotts and sketches of other Indian tribes of North America, true traditional stories of Tecumseh and his league, in the years 1811 and 1812. Toronto: Hunter, Rose and Company. pp. 113–15. Archived from the original on June 28, 2013. Retrieved May 11, 2014.
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 146–147, 150.
- ^ James A. Drain Sr., "2–The Line of the Drains", in Mark L. Bardenwerper Sr., ed. (2013). Single Handed. Cambridge, Wisconsin: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1470032760.
- ^ Jason Winders (March 27, 2014). "Lecture Revisits Western's Archives and Tecumseh's Death". Western University. Archived from the original on February 10, 2018. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 176.
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 180.
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 215–220.
- ^ a b See Madison (2014), p. 38–39, 43 .
- ^ See Madison (2014), p. 38 .
- ^ See Sugden (1998), p. 401 .
- ^ See Sugden (1985), p. 96.
- ^ Robert Remini (1991). Henry Clay. New York: W. W. Norton. p. 117. ISBN 9780393030044.
- ^ A. T. Mahan (1905). "The Negotiations at Ghent in 1814". The American Historical Review. 11 (1): 73–78. doi:10.2307/1832365. JSTOR 1832365.
- ^ "War of 1812 hero Tecumseh commemorated on Royal Canadian Mint 25-cent circulation coin". Royal Canadian Mint. November 16, 2012. Archived from the original on June 24, 2016. Retrieved May 21, 2016.
- ^ "Tecumseh plaque: Memorial 35035-002 Chatham, ON". National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials. Veterans Affairs Canada. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
- ^ Welland Tribune (Article ID# 2803886) Archived April 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ McAllister, Michael. "Underwater Archaeology". The Hamilton & Scourge National Historic Site. The City of Hamilton. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved February 22, 2015.
- ^ "Tamanend, Chief of Delaware Indians (1628–1698), (sculpture)" Archived September 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Smithsonian Institution, SI.edu.
- ^ WTS Memoirs, 2d ed. 11 (Lib. of America 1990)
- ^ "Tecumseh-Harrison Elementary". Vincennes Community School Corporation. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved January 28, 2013.
- ^ "Tecumseh Public Schools Home Page". Tecumseh (Michigan) Public Schools. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved January 28, 2013.
- ^ "Tecumseh Middle School". Tecumseh (Oklahoma) Public Schools. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Retrieved January 28, 2013.
- ^ "Tecumseh Elementary School: About Us: Who was Tecumseh?". Vancouver School Board. Archived from the original on June 4, 2013. Retrieved January 28, 2013.
- ^ "Tecumseh Public School". Halton District School Board. Archived from the original on July 30, 2012. Retrieved January 28, 2013.
- ^ "Tecumseh Senior Public School". Toronto District School Board. Archived from the original on August 17, 2013. Retrieved January 28, 2013.
- ^ "The dying Tecumseh by Ferdinand Pettrich / American Art". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on June 24, 2017. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
- ^ "Tippecanoe County Courthouse, (sculpture) | Collections Search Center, Smithsonian Institution". Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
- ^ Nl.newsbank.com Archived June 9, 2011, at the Wayback Machine BYLINE:Andrew McGinn Staff Writer DATE: February 22, 2007 PUBLICATION: Springfield News-Sun (OH)
- ^ Chillicothegazette.com Archived August 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine 'Tecumseh' to receive award this weekend
- ^ Washington Post Archived November 29, 2018, at the Wayback Machine Allan Eckert, playwright of 'Tecumseh!' outdoor drama in Ohio dies at 80 in California
- ^ Historical Overview, The Battle of Tippecanoe Outdoor Drama 1990 Souvenir Program, Summer 1990.
Sources
- Calloway, Colin G. (2007). The Shawnees and the War for America. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03862-6.
- Cayton, Andrew R. L. (1996). Frontier Indiana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253330483.
- Cozzens, Peter (2020). Tecumseh and the Prophet: The Shawnee Brothers Who Defied a Nation. United States: Knopf. ISBN 9781524733254.
- Edmunds, R. David (1985). The Shawnee Prophet. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1850-8.
- Edmunds, R. David (2007). Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN 9780321043719.
- Goltz, Herbert C. W. (1983). "Tecumseh". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. V (1801–1820) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
- Jortner, Adam (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199765294.
- Owens, Robert M. (2007). Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3842-8.
- Sugden, John (1985). Tecumseh's Last Stand (hardcover ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-80611-944-6.
- Sugden, John (1986). "Early Pan-Indianism: Tecumseh's Tour of the Indian Country, 1811-1812". American Indian Quarterly. 10 (4): 273–304. doi:10.2307/1183838. JSTOR 1183838. (essay later included in Nichols, Roger L. (ed) (1992). The American Indian: Past and Present. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 107–129, ISBN 0-07-046499-5).
External links
- "Birthplace of Tecumseh". www.hmdb.org. Historical Marker Database. Archived from the original on July 7, 2017. Retrieved January 16, 2021. Modern scholarship has shown that this marker is in the wrong location