A general strike has two meanings that we can clarify with two separate names:
- General Strike: In modern times, a general strike refers to a protest for social or political goals in which all participants cease all economic activity, such as, working, attending school, shopping, going to the movies, etc. General strikes are organized by large coalitions of political, social, and labor organizations. General strikes might exclude care workers—such as teachers, doctors, and nurses—since these people leaving their jobs could lead to harm. General strikes may also include rallies, marches, boycotts, civil disobedience, non-payment of taxes, and other forms of direct or indirect action. The tradition of general strikes has continued into the present, with several general strikes being announced around the world in the last two decades.
- Solidarity Strike: Traditionally and historically (but sometimes in present-day as well) a general strike refers to what is more accurately called a Solidarity Strike. This is a multi-sector labor strike, organized by labor unions, that strike together in order to strengthen one labor union's bargaining position or achieve a common bargaining or political goal. This form of labor action has been illegal in the U.S. since 1947. Solidarity strikes have also continued to be used around the world, for instance in June 2022 Tunesian labor unions began a general strike and grounded international flights and shipping.[1]
The Modern General Strike
A general strike in the modern meaning of the term has its roots in any mass actions that swept across most of society and included walking off worksites, boycotting, and non-payment of taxes, and other forms of symbolic or direct action. While a modern general strike often collaborates with labor unions, it is not, precisely, a labor strike. General strikes are not prolonged, they are more commonly one-off, weekly, monthly, or annual days of mass non-cooperation and direct action.
History of General Strikes
Various events throughout history are recognizable as forebears to the modern general strike.
An early predecessor of the general strike may have been the secessio plebis in the Roman Republic where the Roman plebs withdrew cooperation from the Roman patricians.
The first Labor Day parade on Sept. 5, 1882 in New York City could be considered a modern general strike, since while it was organized by and lead by labor unions and their members, it lasted only one day and included virtually all members of society in a parade, picnics, speeches, fireworks, and dancing. History.com “Why Do We Celebrate Labor Day?” Accessed Aug. 27, 2021.
In the fight in the Indian Independence Movement lead by Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi promoted the use of what is called Hartal which translates seamlessly into the modern definition of a general strike: "A hartal is a mass protest, often involving a total shutdown of workplaces, offices, shops, and courts of law, and a form of civil disobedience similar to a labour strike." (from Hartal)
The modern history of Europe is punctuated with modern general strikes. The Spanish, French, and Italians in particular have effectively used single day-of-action general strikes to promote justice, freedom, and a worker-oriented economy.
Solidarity Strikes
Industrial General Strike: a Tool of Labor Solidarity
A General Strike or Solidarity Strike was when various trade unions would go on strike sympathetically to help another trade union. General strikes were a sort of "nuclear option" for trade unions to all band together and go on a prolonged strike together.
Ralph Chaplin, editor of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) newspaper Solidarity and later of the Industrial Worker, identified four levels of general strike:
- A general strike in a community.
- A general strike in an industry.
- A national general strike.
- A revolutionary or class strike—the General Strike.[2]
In the 1905 pamphlet The Social General Strike, published in Chicago in 1905, Stephen Naft had previously acknowledged the same four levels of the general strike:
[The name "General Strike"] is often used to designate the strike of all branches in one trade; for instance the general strike of the miners; when helpers and hoisting engineers, etc. are all out. Then it is used as: General Strike of a city, i.e., "General Strike in Florence", or a General Strike in a whole country or province, for the purpose of gaining political rights, i.e., the right to vote; as in Belgium, or Sweden.[3]
The profoundest conception of the General Strike, however, [is] the one pointing to a thorough change of the present system: a social revolution of the world; an entire new reorganisation; a demolition of the entire old system of all governments...[3]
Naft's 1905 pamphlet (translated from the German language) traced existing sentiment for this goal of the general strike to proletarians of Spain and Italy.[4]
The premise of The Social General Strike is that no matter how powerfully the working class organises itself, it still has no significant power over a congress, or the executive (which has military force at its beck and call). Therefore, a general strike called by an "energetic and enthusiastic" minority of workers, might be embraced by the mass of workers who remain unorganised.[4] Thus it may be possible,
...to completely interrupt production in the whole country, and stop communication and consumption for the ruling classes, and that for a time long enough to totally disorganise the capitalistic society; so that after the complete annihilation of the old system, the working people can take possession through its labour unions of all the means of production...[5]
The Social General Strike noted the complexity of modern industry, identifying the many stages in the manufacturing process and geographic dispersal of related manufacturing locations as weaknesses of the industrial process during any labour dispute.[5] The pamphlet notes the problem of hunger during a general strike, and recommends where warehouses are available for the purpose, that proletarians,
...do the same thing as the ruling classes have done uninterruptedly for thousands of years: that is, "consume without producing." This deportment of the ruling classes the working class calls exploitation, and if the proletarians do it, the possessing classes call it plundering—and socialism calls it expropriation.[6]
However, the pamphlet asserts that,
The immense advantage of the general strike is that it begins entirely lawfully and without any danger for the workers, and for this reason thousands will take part...[7]
The year 1919 saw a number of general strikes throughout the United States and Canada, including two that were considered significant—the Seattle General Strike, and the Winnipeg General Strike. While the IWW participated in the Seattle General Strike, that action was called by the Seattle Central Labor Union, affiliated with the American Federation of Labor (AFL, predecessor of the AFL–CIO).[8]
In June 1919, the AFL national organisation, in session in Atlantic City, New Jersey, passed resolutions in opposition to the general strike. The official report of these proceedings described the convention as the "largest and in all probability the most important Convention ever held" by the organisation, in part for having engineered the "overwhelming defeat of the so-called Radical element" via crushing a "One Big Union proposition", and also for defeating a proposal for a nationwide general strike, both "by a vote of more than 20 to 1."[9] The AFL amended its constitution to disallow any central labour union (i.e., regional labour councils) from "taking a strike vote without prior authorization of the national officers of the union concerned".[9] The change was intended to "check the spread of general strike sentiment and prevent recurrences of what happened at Seattle and is now going on at Winnipeg."[9] The penalty for any unauthorised strike vote was revocation of that body's charter.[9]
The 19th century – the inception of the industrial general strike
The general strike action only became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the industrial working class; they lived in cities and exchanged their labour for payment. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, a true and widespread 'workers' consciousness' was beginning to awaken in England.
The first theorist to formulate and popularise the idea of a general strike for the purpose of political reform was the radical pamphleteer William Benbow.[10] Closely involved with planning the attempted Blanketeers protest march by Lancashire weavers in March 1817,[11] he became an associate of William Cobbett and passed his time "agitating the labouring classes at their trades meetings and club-houses."[11]
On 28 January 1832 Benbow published a pamphlet entitled Grand National Holiday and Congress of the Productive Classes.[12] Benbow began to advocate direct and even violent action for political reform, in particular he advanced his idea for a "national holiday" and "national convention". By this he meant an extended period of general strike by the working classes, which would be a sacred or holy action (hence "holy-day"), during which time local committees would keep the peace and elect delegates to a national convention or congress, which would agree the future direction of the nation. The striking workers were to support themselves with savings and confiscated parish funds, and by demanding contributions from rich people.[13]
Benbow's idea of a Grand National Holiday was adopted by the Chartist Congress of 1839, Benbow having spent time in Manchester during 1838-9 promoting the cause and his pamphlet.[14]
In 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike (the 1842 general strike). After the second Chartist Petition was presented to Parliament in April 1842 and rejected, the strike began in the coal mines of Staffordshire, England, and soon spread through Britain affecting factories, mills in Lancashire and coal mines from Dundee to South Wales and Cornwall.[15] Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the mutinous masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by a hard-headed agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the then industrial workforce were on strike at its peak—over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshaled a growing working-class tradition to politically organise their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist, political establishment.
The mass abandonment of plantations by black slaves and poor whites during the American Civil War has, controversially, been considered a general strike. In his classic history Black Reconstruction in America, W. E. B. Du Bois describes this mass abandonment in precisely these terms:
Transforming itself suddenly from a problem of abandoned plantations and slaves captured while being used by the [Southern] enemy for military purposes, the movement became a general strike against the slave system on the part of all who could find opportunity. The trickling streams of fugitives swelled to a flood. Once begun, the general strike of black and white went madly and relentlessly on like some great saga.[16]
The next large-scale general strike took place over half a century later in Belgium, in an effort to force the government to grant universal suffrage to the people.[17] However, there were periodical strikes throughout the 19th century that could loosely be considered as 'general strikes'. In the United States, the Philadelphia General Strike of 1835 lasted for three weeks, after which the striking workers won their goal of a ten-hour workday and an increase in wages.[18] Later general strikes include a one-week general strike of workers in the Central Pacific Railroad, a general strike that was not widely reported in the press or studied in literature because it was peaceful.[19], and the more violent and disruptive 1877 Saint Louis general strike, which grew out of the events of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 across the United States and the 1892 New Orleans general strike. The year of 1919 saw a cascade of general strikes around the world as a result of the political convulsions caused by the First World War—in Germany, Belfast, Seattle and Winnipeg.
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220620234106im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Tampereen_suurlakko_1905.jpg)
The Russian Revolution of 1905 saw a massive wave of social unrest across the Russian Empire, characterised by large scale general strikes on the part of the industrial workers. The 1926 United Kingdom general strike started in the coal industry and rapidly escalated; the unions called out 1,750,000 workers, mainly in the transport and steel sectors, although the strike was successfully suppressed by the government.[20][21]
1947 — Solidarity Strikes Made Illegal in U.S.
After the passage of the anti-union Taft–Hartley Act in 1947, the general strike changed from a tool of labor strike solidarity into a general form of social, political, and economic protest. Congress passed the law in the wake of the women-led 1946 Oakland General Strike. It outlawed actions taken by unionized workers in support of workers at other companies, effectively rendering both solidarity actions and the general strike itself illegal.[22] Before 1947 and the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act the term general strike meant when various unions would officially go on strike in solidarity with other striking unions. The act made it illegal for one union to go on strike to support another. Hence, the definition and practice of a general strike changed in modern times to mean periodic days of mass action coordinated, often, by unions, but not an official or prolonged strike.
Since then, in the US and Europe the general strike has become a tool of mass economic protest often in conjunction with other forms of electoral action and direct civil action.
Debates on general strikes from the past
Socialists versus anarchists
In 1966, in a study of revolutionary socialism, Milorad M. Drachkovitch of the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace (a conservative think tank), noted two tactical options which divided late 19th century and early 20th century anarchists from socialists: electoral politics, which the socialists embraced, but anarchists generally opposed; and, the general strike as a mechanism to prevent war, which anarchists supported, but socialists refused to endorse.[23]
As a group, the socialists of the period repeatedly rejected the general strike as a tactic;[24] however, a number of socialist leaders advocated its use for one reason or another.[25] Socialist leaders who embraced the general strike tended to see it as an instrument for obtaining political concessions.[24]
Drachkovitch identified five types of general strikes:
- the political mass strike, a general strike for political rights (such as the right to vote)
- the general strike as a revolutionary act that would transform society
- the general strike as a "revolutionary exercise" which would eventually lead to a transformation of society
- a one-day demonstration general strike on May Day (International Workers' Day), aimed at identifying a "worldwide proletariat"
- commencing in 1891, a theoretical mechanism by which to stop wars between nation states[26]
Drachkovitch perceived the first two concepts, the socialist-friendly general strike for political rights within the system, and the general strike as a revolutionary mechanism to overthrow the existing order—which he associated with a "rising anarcho-syndicalist movement"—as mutually exclusive.[27] Drachkovitch believed that the difficulty arose from the fact that the general strike was "one instrument", but was frequently considered "without distinction of underlying motives."[28]
Milorad M. Drachkovitch also observed the variable success of the general strike in actual use:
In Belgium a general strike movement, broken off in one instance without damage to the organizing forces, eventually led to universal suffrage; in Holland a general strike collapsed with disastrous consequences; in Sweden, a general strike was conducted and terminated with disciplined order but did not attain the desired results. In Italy, general strikes had been both socially effective and politically unproductive. On the other hand, the events of January 1905 in Russia once more seemed to underscore the suitability of the general strike as a decisively revolutionary action.[28]
Syndicalism and the general strike
The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) began to fully embrace the general strike in 1910–1911.[29] The ultimate goal of the general strike, according to Industrial Workers of the World theory, is to displace capitalists and give control over the means of production to workers.[29][30] In a 1911 speech in New York City, IWW organiser Bill Haywood explained his view of the economic situation, and why he believed a general strike was justified,
The capitalists have wealth; they have money. They invest the money in machinery, in the resources of the earth. They operate a factory, a mine, a railroad, a mill. They will keep that factory running just as long as there are profits coming in. When anything happens to disturb the profits, what do the capitalists do? They go on strike, don't they? They withdraw their finances from that particular mill. They close it down because there are no profits to be made there. They don't care what becomes of the working class. But the working class, on the other hand, has always been taught to take care of the capitalist's interest in the property.[31]
Bill Haywood believed that industrial unionism made possible the general strike, and the general strike made possible industrial democracy.[31] According to Wobbly theory, the conventional strike is an important (but not the only) weapon for improving wages, hours, and working conditions for working people. These strikes are also good training to help workers educate themselves about the class struggle, and about what it will take to execute an eventual general strike for the purpose of achieving industrial democracy.[32] During the final general strike, workers would not walk out of their shops, factories, mines, and mills, but would rather occupy their workplaces and take them over.[32] Prior to taking action to initiate industrial democracy, workers would need to educate themselves with technical and managerial knowledge in order to operate industry.[32]
According to labor historian Philip S. Foner, the Wobbly conception of industrial democracy is intentionally not presented in detail by IWW theorists; in that sense, the details are left to the "future development of society".[33] However, certain concepts are implicit. Industrial democracy will be "a new society [built] within the shell of the old."[34] Members of the industrial union educate themselves to operate industry according to democratic principles, and without the current hierarchical ownership/management structure. Issues such as production and distribution would be managed by the workers themselves.[34]
In 1927 the IWW called for a three-day nationwide walkout—in essence, a demonstration general strike—to protest the execution of anarchists Ferdinando Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.[35] The most notable response to the call was in the Walsenburg coal district of Colorado, where 1,132 miners stayed off the job, and only 35 went to work,[36] a participation rate which led directly to the Colorado coal strike of 1927.
On 18 March 2011, the Industrial Workers of the World website (www.iww.org) supported an endorsement of a general strike as a follow-up to protests against Governor Scott Walker's proposed labour legislation in Wisconsin, following a motion passed by the South Central Federation of Labor (SCFL) of Wisconsin endorsing a statewide general strike as a response to those legislative proposals.[37][38] The SCFL website states,
At SCFL’s monthly meeting Monday, Feb. 21, delegates endorsed the following: "The SCFL endorses a general strike, possibly for the day Walker signs his 'budget repair bill.'" An ad hoc committee was formed to explore the details. SCFL did not CALL for a general strike because it does not have that authority.[38]
Notable general strikes
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220620234106im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Vaga_21_febrer_2019_10.jpg/220px-Vaga_21_febrer_2019_10.jpg)
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220620234106im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Balbir_Singh_Rajewal._President%2C_Bhartiya_Kisan_Union_%28BKU_Rajewal%29._03.jpg/220px-Balbir_Singh_Rajewal._President%2C_Bhartiya_Kisan_Union_%28BKU_Rajewal%29._03.jpg)
The largest general strike that ever stopped the economy of an advanced industrial country—and the first general wildcat strike in history—was May 1968 in France.[40] The prolonged strike involved eleven million workers for two weeks in a row,[40] and its impact was such that it almost caused the collapse of the de Gaulle government. Other notable general strikes include:
- In Portugal, a general strike was called in 2011 by the federation of public labour unions to avert austerity measures.[41]
- In Honduras, a general strike was called in 2011 by union workers, farmers and other organisations demanding better education, an increase in the minimum wage and against fuel price hikes.[42]
- In Yemen, thousands of people took the streets in a general strike in 2011 to protest President Ali Abdullah Saleh.[43]
- In Algeria, public sector workers in 2011 mounted a general strike for higher wages and improved working conditions.[44]
- In February 1947, General Douglas MacArthur, as Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers in Japan, banned a planned general strike of 2,400,000 government workers, stating that "so deadly a social weapon" as a general strike should not be used in the impoverished and emaciated condition of Japan so soon after World War II. Japan's labour leaders complied with his ban.[45]
- 2021:
Striketober
- 2021:
Myanmar general strike, in response to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état
- 2020:
Indian general strike of 2020[39]
- 2020:
2020 Belarusian protests
- 2020:
United States essential workers general strike
- 2019:
5 August Hong Kong general strike during the anti-extradition bill protests
- 2019:
18 October 2019 Catalan general strike
- 2019:
Two-day national Sudanese general strike during the 2018–19 Sudanese protests
- 2019:
Indian general strike[46]
- 2018:
Iranian general strike
- 2017:
8 November Catalan independentists general strike
- 2017:
3 October Catalan independentists general strike
- 2016:
Indian general strike
- 2013:
Slovenian public sector general strike[citation needed]
- 2012:
29 March Spanish general strike[citation needed]
- 2012:
European general strike[citation needed]
- 2010:
Spanish general strike[citation needed]
- 2009:
French Caribbean general strikes
- 2007:
Guinea general strike
- 2006:
April Nepalese general strike
- 2005:
Bolivian Gas Conflict
- 2002:
Venezuelan general strike of 2002–2003
- 2002:
Italian general strike[citation needed]
- 2000:
Cochabamba general strike, Bolivia
- 1995:
Days of Action, Canada[citation needed]
- 1995:
French public sector strikes
- 1992:
Nepalese General Strike
- 1989:
Two-hour general strike of all citizens of Czechoslovakia during the Velvet Revolution
- 1988:
Spanish General Strike
- 1984:
Uruguayan General Strike
- 1978–1979:
Strikes during Iranian Revolution.
- 1976:
Saint John General Strike[47]
- 1975:
Icelandic women's strike
- 1974:
Ulster Workers Council Strike, Northern Ireland.
- 1973:
Uruguayan General Strike
- 1972:
Quebec general strike[48]
- 1968:
French General Strike
- 1960:
1960-1961 Winter General Strike in Belgium
- 1958:
Bahamas general strike[citation needed]
- 1956:
Finnish general strike
- 1954:
Honduras general strike
- 1953:
Ceylonese Hartal, Ceylon
- 1950:
General strike against Leopold III of Belgium
- 1950:
Austrian general strikes
- 1946:
Oakland general strike, Oakland, California
- 1946:
Indian general strike
- 1942:
Luxembourgish general strike
- 1941:
February strike, Netherlands
- 1936:
Syrian general strike
- 1938:
French general strike
- 1936:
Spanish general strike
- 1936:
French general strike
- 1936:
Palestinian general strike
- 1934:
Toledo Auto-Lite Strike, US
- 1934:
Minneapolis general strike, US
- 1934:
West Coast waterfront strike, US
- 1934:
Portuguese general strike of 1934
- 1932:
Geneva general strike, Switzerland
- 1933:
French general strike
- 1926:
United Kingdom general strike
- 1920:
German passive resistance strikes at the Ruhr
- 1922:
1922 Italian general strike
- 1920:
Romanian general strike
- 1920:
General strike in Germany to stop Kapp Putsch.
- 1919:
General Strike in Basel and Zurich 1919, Switzerland
- 1919:
Seattle General Strike, Seattle, Washington, U.S.
- 1919:
Winnipeg General Strike, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- 1919:
Barcelona General Strike, Spain
- 1918:
Swiss general strike
- 1918:
Irish General Strike against Conscription
- 1917:
Spanish General Strike
- 1917:
Brazilian general strike
- 1917:
Australian general strike
- 1912:
Zurich general strike, Switzerland
- 1912:
Brisbane General Strike, Australia
- 1909:
Swedish general strike of 1909
- 1909:
A general strike coupled with a major uprising in Barcelona
- 1907:
New Orleans Levee General Strike, United States
- 1907:
Geneva general strike, Switzerland
- 1905:
The Great October Strike, Russia; see 1905 Russian Revolution.
- 1902:
Geneva general strike, Switzerland
- 1893:
Belgian general strike, Belgium
- 1892:
New Orleans General Strike, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.
- 1886:
Walloon jacquerie of 1886 Wallonia
- 1882:
September 5, 1882 the first [Labor Day] in the United States celebrated in NYC was itself a general strike.[citation needed]
- 1877:
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
- 1862–1865:
The plantation general strike in the Confederate States of the U.S.
- 1842:
General strike, Great Britain
- 1835:
Philadelphia General Strike, Pennsylvania
- 287 BC: A secessio plebis,[a] Roman Republic, leading to the adoption of the Lex Hortensia
- 449 BC: A secessio plebis,[a] Roman Republic, leading to the adoption of the Twelve Tables
- 494 BC: The Aventine Secession,[a] Roman Republic, creating the Tribune of the Plebs
See also
- Civil disobedience
- Civil resistance
- Critique of work
- Demonstration (political)
- Direct action
- Earth Strike
- Georges Sorel
- Hartal
- Industrial Workers of the World
- Industrial unionism
- List of strikes
- Nonviolent resistance
- Occupation of factories
- Protest
- Secessio plebis
- Stay away
- Syndicalism
- Workers' self-management
- ^ a b c "plebeian secession" was a tactic used by the Roman plebs of vacating a city entirely and leaving its ruling elite to fend for itself, thus an even more radical action than a "general strike", yet unlike the latter term, it does not pertain to withholding labour within a wage-system. General strikes in the current sense of the term only begin to take place in a context where in which labour is treated as a commodity, and wage workers collectively organise to halt production.
References
- ^ "Tunisian general strike to cancel international flights, and halt land and sea transportation". Middle East Eye. 16 June 2022.
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- ^ a b Stephen Naft, The Social General Strike, Debating Club No. 1, Chicago, June 1905, pages 5–6, translated from the German language pamphlet of the same name by Arnold Roller
- ^ a b Stephen Naft, The Social General Strike, Debating Club No. 1, Chicago, June 1905, page 6, translated from the German language pamphlet of the same name by Arnold Roller
- ^ a b Stephen Naft, The Social General Strike, Debating Club No. 1, Chicago, June 1905, page 7, translated from the German language pamphlet of the same name by Arnold Roller
- ^ Stephen Naft, The Social General Strike, Debating Club No. 1, Chicago, June 1905, page 8, translated from the German language pamphlet of the same name by Arnold Roller
- ^ Stephen Naft, The Social General Strike, Debating Club No. 1, Chicago, June 1905, page 9, translated from the German language pamphlet of the same name by Arnold Roller
- ^ "Seattle General Strike". depts.washington.edu. Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
- ^ a b c d Sheet Metal Workers' Journal, Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers' International Alliance, Volumes 24-25, Chicago, Illinois, 1919, pages 265-267
- ^ Carpenter, Niles. William Benbow and the Origin of the General Strike Archived 13 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , Vol. 35, No. 3 (May 1921), pp. 491-499. Oxford University Press
- ^ a b Bamford, Samuel (1843). Passages in the Life of a Radical. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
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- ^ Beer, M (1921). A History of British Socialism. London: G. Bell & Son. OL 23304301M.
- ^ F.C.Mather (1974). "The General Strike of 1842: A Study in Leadership, Organisation and the Threat of Revolution during the Plug Plot Disturbance". web.bham.ac.uk/1848. George Allen & Unwin Ltd London. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2008.
- ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1935 (New York: The Free Press, 1998), 63-4.
- ^ "What do we mean by a General Strike?". Counterfire. Archived from the original on 10 June 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- ^ Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 1, From Colonial Times to the Founding of The American Federation of Labor, International Publishers, 1975, pages 116–118
- ^ Ryan, Patrick Spaulding (11 May 2022). "Saving Face Without Words: A Confucian Perspective on The Strike of 1867". SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.4067005. S2CID 248036295. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
- ^ G A. Phillips, The General Strike: The Politics of Industrial Conflict (1976)
- ^ Keith Laybourn, The General Strike of 1926 (1993)
- ^ Kelly, Kim (30 January 2022). "Everything You Need to Know About General Strikes". Teen Vogue. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
- ^ Milorad M. Drachkovitch, The revolutionary internationals, 1864–1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1966, page 81
- ^ a b Milorad M. Drachkovitch, The revolutionary internationals, 1864–1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1966, page 83
- ^ Milorad M. Drachkovitch, The revolutionary internationals, 1864–1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1966, pages 82–83
- ^ Milorad M. Drachkovitch, The revolutionary internationals, 1864–1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1966, pages 99–100
- ^ Milorad M. Drachkovitch, The revolutionary internationals, 1864–1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1966, page 99.
- ^ a b Milorad M. Drachkovitch, The revolutionary internationals, 1864–1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1966, page 100
- ^ a b Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 4, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905–1917, International Publishers, 1997, page 140
- ^ Melvyn Dubofsky, We Shall Be All, A History of the Industrial Workers of the World, University of Illinois Press Abridged, 2000, page 90
- ^ a b Bill Haywood, The General Strike (Chicago, n.d.), pamphlet, published by Industrial Workers of the World, from a New York City speech delivered March 16, 1911.
- ^ a b c Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 4, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905–1917, International Publishers, 1997, page 141
- ^ Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 4, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905–1917, International Publishers, 1997, pages 141–142
- ^ a b Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 4, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905–1917, International Publishers, 1997, page 142
- ^ Donald J. McClurg, The Colorado Coal Strike of 1927—Tactical Leadership of the IWW, Labor History, Vol. 4, No. 1, Winter, 1963, page 71
- ^ Donald J. McClurg, The Colorado Coal Strike of 1927: Tactical Leadership of the IWW, Labor History, Vol. 4, No. 1, Winter, 1963, page 72
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- ^ a b The Beginning of an Era Archived 10 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, from Situationist International No 12 (September 1969). Translated by Ken Knabb.
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- ^ Cuevas, Freddy (1 April 2011). "Teachers strike fuels unrest in polarized Honduras". San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
- ^ ABC News, http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2011/s3185314.htm Archived 9 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 9 April 2011
- ^ Magharebia, http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/general/2011/04/07/newsbrief-03 Archived 9 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 9 April 2011
- ^ The Sydney Morning Herald, 1 February 1947, page 1
- ^ Grevatt, Martha (14 January 2019). "All-India General Strike is largest in world history". Archived from the original on 6 February 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
- ^ Léger, Raymond. "October 14, 1976 – the Saint John General Strike". Frank & Ella Hatheway Labour Exhibit Centre. Archived from the original on 9 April 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ "1972: The Quebec general strike". Archived from the original on 9 April 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
Further reading
- Henry L. Slobodin, "The General Strike," International Socialist Review, vol. 17, no. 6 (December 1916), pp. 353–355.
External links
- Chronology of general strikes
- The Mass Strike by Rosa Luxemburg (1906).
- General Strike 1842 From chartists.net, downloaded 5 June 2006.
- From Reflections on Violence
- Strike! Famous Worker Uprisings Archived 18 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine—slideshow by Life magazine.
- Strikes and You from the National Alliance for Worker and Employer Rights
- Seattle General Strike Project
- Oakland 1946! Project