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Ethics phi s phy is b nch< ef n e=":0">Template:Cite b k</ ef> f phi s phy th t "inv ves syste tizing, defending, nd ec ending c ncepts f ight nd w ng beh vi ".< ef n e="iep.ut .edu">Inte net Encyc pedi f Phi s phy {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef> The fie d f ethics, ng with esthetics, c nce ns tte s f v ue; these fie ds c p ise the b nch f phi s phy c ed xi gy.< ef>nd H use Un b idged Dicti n y: n y. efe ence.c /b wse/ xi gy Ent y n xi gy.</ ef>
Ethics seeks t es ve questi ns f hu n ity by defining c ncepts such s g d nd evi , ight nd w ng, vi tue nd vice, justice nd c i e.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> s fie d f inte ectu inqui y, phi s phy is e ted t the fie ds f psych gy, desc iptive ethics, nd v ue the y.
Th ee j e s f study within ethics ec gnized t d y e:< ef n e="iep.ut .edu"/>
- et -ethics, c nce ning the the etic e ning nd efe ence f p p siti ns, nd h w thei t uth v ues (if ny) c n be dete ined;
- N tive ethics, c nce ning the p ctic e ns f dete ining c u se f cti n;
- pp ied ethics, c nce ning wh t pe s n is b ig ted ( pe itted) t d in specific situ ti n p ticu d in f cti n.< ef n e="iep.ut .edu"/>
Defining ethics
The Eng ish w d ethics is de ived f the ncient G eek w d ēthikós (Α0), e ning " e ting t ne's ch cte ", which itse f c es f the t w d êth s (Α0) e ning "ch cte , n tu e".< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> This w d w s t nsfe ed int tin s ethic nd then int F ench s éthique, f which it w s t nsfe ed int Eng ish.
ushw th Kidde st tes th t "st nd d definiti ns f ethics h ve typic y inc uded such ph ses s 'the science f the ide hu n ch cte ' 'the science f duty'".< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> ich d Wi i P u nd ind E de define ethics s " set f c ncepts nd p incip es th t guide us in dete ining wh t beh vi he ps h s sentient c e tu es".< ef n e=" efe ence ">Template:Cite b k</ ef> The C b idge Dicti n y f Phi s phy st tes th t the w d "ethics" is "c n y used inte ch nge b y with 'ity' ... nd s eti es it is used e n w y t e n the p incip es f p ticu t diti n, g up individu ."< ef>J hn Deigh in be t udi (ed), The C b idge Dicti n y f Phi s phy, 1995.</ ef> P u nd E de st te th t st pe p e c nfuse ethics with beh ving in cc d nce with s ci c nventi ns, e igi us be iefs, the w, nd d n t t e t ethics s st nd- ne c ncept.< ef n e=" efe ence ">Template:Cite b k</ ef>
The w d ethics in Eng ish efe s t seve things.< ef>Template:Cite dicti n y</ ef> It c n efe t phi s phic ethics phi s phy— p ject th t tte pts t use e s n t nswe v i us kinds f ethic questi ns. s the Eng ish phi s phe Be n d Wi i s w ites, tte pting t exp in phi s phy: "Wh t kes n inqui y phi s phic ne is ef ective gene ity nd sty e f gu ent th t c i s t be ti n y pe su sive."< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> Wi i s desc ibes the c ntent f this e f inqui y s dd essing the ve y b d questi n, "h w ne sh u d ive".< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> Ethics c n s efe t c n hu n bi ity t think b ut ethic p b e s th t is n t p ticu t phi s phy. s bi ethicist y Chu chi h s w itten: "Ethics, unde st d s the c p city t think c itic y b ut v ues nd di ect u cti ns in te s f such v ues, is gene ic hu n c p city."< ef> {{cite news}}
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et -ethics
et -ethics is the b nch f phi s phic ethics th t sks h w we unde st nd, kn w b ut, nd wh t we e n when we t k b ut wh t is ight nd wh t is w ng.< ef n e=bbc> {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef> n ethic questi n pe t ining t p ticu p ctic situ ti n—such s, "Sh u d I e t this p ticu piece f ch c te c ke?"—c nn t be et -ethic questi n ( the , this is n pp ied ethic questi n). et -ethic questi n is bst ct nd e tes t wide nge f e specific p ctic questi ns. F ex p e, "Is it eve p ssib e t h ve secu e kn w edge f wh t is ight nd w ng?" is et -ethic questi n.
et -ethics h s w ys cc p nied phi s phic ethics. F ex p e, ist t e i p ies th t ess p ecise kn w edge is p ssib e in ethics th n in the sphe es f inqui y, nd he eg ds ethic kn w edge s depending up n h bit nd ccu tu ti n in w y th t kes it distinctive f the kinds f kn w edge. et -ethics is s i p t nt in G.E. e's P incipi Ethic f 1903. In it he fi st w te b ut wh t he c ed the n tu istic f cy. e w s seen t eject n tu is in ethics, in his pen-questi n gu ent. This de thinke s k g in t sec nd de questi ns b ut ethics. E ie , the Sc ttish phi s phe D vid Hu e h d put f w d si i view n the diffe ence between f cts nd v ues.
Studies f h w we kn w in ethics divide int c gnitivis nd n n-c gnitivis ; these, espective y, t ke desc iptive nd n n-desc iptive pp ches t g dness v ue. N n-c gnitivis is the view th t when we judge s ething s y ight w ng, this is neithe t ue n f se. We y, f ex p e, be n y exp essing u e ti n fee ings b ut these things.< ef> {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef> C gnitivis c n then be seen s the c i th t when we t k b ut ight nd w ng, we e t king b ut tte s f f ct.
The nt gy f ethics is b ut v ue-be ing things p pe ties, th t is, the kind f things stuff efe ed t by ethic p p siti ns. N n-desc iptivists nd n n-c gnitivists be ieve th t ethics d es n t need specific nt gy since ethic p p siti ns d n t efe . This is kn wn s n nti- e ist p siti n. e ists, n the the h nd, ust exp in wh t kind f entities, p pe ties st tes e e ev nt f ethics, h w they h ve v ue, nd why they guide nd tiv te u cti ns.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef>
skepticis
skepticis ( scepticis ) is c ss f et ethic the ies in which e be s ent i th t n ne h s ny kn w edge. ny skeptics s ke the st nge , d c i th t kn w edge is i p ssib e. skepticis is p ticu y g inst e is which h ds the view th t the e e kn w b e nd bjective t uths.
S e p p nents f skepticis inc ude Py h , eneside us, Sextus E pi icus, D vid Hu e, x Sti ne , F ied ich Nietzsche, nd J. . ckie.
skepticis is divided int th ee sub-c sses:
- e the y ( nihi is ).
- Episte gic skepticis .
- N n-c gnitivis .< ef>Template:Cit ti n</ ef>
f these th ee the ies sh e the s e c nc usi ns, which e s f ws:
- ( ) we e neve justified in be ieving th t c i s (c i s f the f "st te f ff i s x is g d," " cti n y is y b ig t y," etc.) e t ue nd, even e s
- (b) we neve kn w th t ny c i is t ue.
H weve , e ch eth d ives t ( ) nd (b) by diffe ent utes.
e the y h ds th t we d n t kn w th t ny c i is t ue bec use
- (i) c i s e f se,
- (ii) we h ve e s n t be ieve th t c i s e f se, nd
- (iii) since we e n t justified in be ieving ny c i we h ve e s n t deny, we e n t justified in be ieving ny c i s.
Episte gic skepticis is subc ss f the y, the e be s f which inc ude Py h ni n skepticis nd d g tic skepticis . e be s f episte gic skepticis sh e tw things: fi st, they ckn w edge th t we e unjustified in be ieving ny c i , nd sec nd, they e gn stic n whethe (i) is t ue (i.e. n whethe c i s e f se).
- Py h ni n skepticis h ds th t the e s n we e unjustified in be ieving ny c i is th t it is i ti n f us t be ieve eithe th t ny c i is t ue th t ny c i is f se. Thus, in dditi n t being gn stic n whethe (i) is t ue, Py h ni n skepticis denies (ii).
- D g tic skepticis , n the the h nd, ffi s (ii) nd cites (ii)'s t uth s the e s n we e unjustified in be ieving ny c i .
N nc gnitivis h ds th t we c n neve kn w th t ny c i is t ue bec use c i s e inc p b e f being t ue f se (they e n t t uth- pt). Inste d, c i s e i pe tives (e.g. "D n't ste b bies!"), exp essi ns f e ti n (e.g. "ste ing b bies: B !"), exp essi ns f "p - ttitudes" ("I d n t be ieve th t b bies sh u d be st en.")
N tive ethics
N tive ethics is the study f ethic cti n. It is the b nch f ethics th t investig tes the set f questi ns th t ise when c nside ing h w ne ught t ct, y spe king. N tive ethics is distinct f et -ethics bec use n tive ethics ex ines st nd ds f the ightness nd w ngness f cti ns, whi e et -ethics studies the e ning f ngu ge nd the et physics f f cts.< ef n e=bbc/> N tive ethics is s distinct f desc iptive ethics, s the tte is n e pi ic investig ti n f pe p e's be iefs. T put it n the w y, desc iptive ethics w u d be c nce ned with dete ining wh t p p ti n f pe p e be ieve th t ki ing is w ys w ng, whi e n tive ethics is c nce ned with whethe it is c ect t h d such be ief. Hence, n tive ethics is s eti es c ed p esc iptive the th n desc iptive. H weve , n ce t in ve si ns f the et -ethic view c ed e is , f cts e b th desc iptive nd p esc iptive t the s e ti e.< ef> {{cite web}}
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T diti n y, n tive ethics ( s kn wn s the y) w s the study f wh t kes cti ns ight nd w ng. These the ies ffe ed n ve ching p incip e ne c u d ppe t in es ving difficu t decisi ns.
t the tu n f the 20th centu y, the ies bec e e c p ex nd we e n nge c nce ned s e y with ightness nd w ngness, but we e inte ested in ny diffe ent kinds f st tus. Du ing the idd e f the centu y, the study f n tive ethics dec ined s et -ethics g ew in p inence. This f cus n et -ethics w s in p t c used by n intense inguistic f cus in n ytic phi s phy nd by the p pu ity f gic p sitivis .
Vi tue ethics
[[Fi e:S c tes B G 1973.03-27.16.jpg|thu b|up ight|S c tes]]
Vi tue ethics desc ibes the ch cte f gent s d iving f ce f ethic beh vi , nd it is used t desc ibe the ethics f e y G eek phi s phe s such s S c tes nd ist t e, nd ncient Indi n phi s phe s such s V uv . S c tes (469–399 BC) w s ne f the fi st G eek phi s phe s t enc u ge b th sch s nd the c n citizen t tu n thei ttenti n f the utside w d t the c nditi n f hu nkind. In this view, kn w edge be ing n hu n ife w s p ced highest, whi e the kn w edge w s sec nd y. Se f-kn w edge w s c nside ed necess y f success nd inhe ent y n essenti g d. se f- w e pe s n wi ct c p ete y within his c p bi ities t his pinn c e, whi e n ign nt pe s n wi f unde nd enc unte difficu ty. T S c tes, pe s n ust bec e w e f eve y f ct ( nd its c ntext) e ev nt t his existence, if he wishes t tt in se f-kn w edge. He p sited th t pe p e wi n tu y d wh t is g d if they kn w wh t is ight. Evi b d cti ns e the esu ts f ign nce. If c i in w s t u y w e f the inte ectu nd spi itu c nsequences f his he cti ns, he she w u d neithe c it n even c nside c itting th se cti ns. ny pe s n wh kn ws wh t is t u y ight wi ut tic y d it, cc ding t S c tes. Whi e he c e ted kn w edge with vi tue, he si i y equ ted vi tue with j y. The t u y wise n wi kn w wh t is ight, d wh t is g d, nd the ef e be h ppy.< ef n e="S h ki nS h ki n1966">Template:Cite b k</ ef>
ist t e (384–323 BC) p sited n ethic syste th t y be te ed "vi tu us". In ist t e's view, when pe s n cts in cc d nce with vi tue this pe s n wi d g d nd be c ntent. Unh ppiness nd f ust ti n e c used by d ing w ng, e ding t f i ed g s nd p ife. The ef e, it is i pe tive f pe p e t ct in cc d nce with vi tue, which is n y tt in b e by the p ctice f the vi tues in de t be c ntent nd c p ete. H ppiness w s he d t be the u ti te g . the things, such s civic ife we th, we e n y de w thwhi e nd f benefit when e p yed in the p ctice f the vi tues. The p ctice f the vi tues is the su est p th t h ppiness. ist t e sse ted th t the s u f n h d th ee n tu esTemplate:Cit ti n needed: b dy (physic / et b is ), ni (e ti n / ppetite), nd ti n ( ent /c nceptu ). Physic n tu e c n be ssu ged th ugh exe cise nd c e; e ti n n tu e th ugh indu gence f instinct nd u ges; nd ent n tu e th ugh hu n e s n nd deve ped p tenti . ti n deve p ent w s c nside ed the st i p t nt, s essenti t phi s phic se f- w eness, nd s unique y hu n. de ti n w s enc u ged, with the ext e es seen s deg ded nd i . F ex p e, c u ge is the de te vi tue between the ext e es f c w dice nd eck essness. n sh u d n t si p y ive, but ive we with c nduct g ve ned by vi tue. This is eg ded s difficu t, s vi tue den tes d ing the ight thing, in the ight w y, t the ight ti e, f the ight e s n.
V uv (bef e 5th centu y CE) keeps vi tue, ṟ (dh ) s he c s it, s the c ne st ne th ugh ut the w iting f the Ku ite tu e.< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> Whi e e igi us sc iptu es gene y c nside ṟ s divine in n tu e, V uv desc ibes it s w y f ife the th n ny spi itu bse v nce, w y f h ni us iving th t e ds t unive s h ppiness.< ef n e="S njeevi_Se in P pe s">Template:Cite b k</ ef> C nt y t wh t the c nte p y w ks s y, V uv h ds th t ṟ is c n f , i espective f whethe the pe s n is be e f p nquin the ide in it. V uv c nside ed justice s f cet f ṟ . Whi e ncient G eek phi s phe s such s P t , ist t e, nd thei descend nts pined th t justice c nn t be defined nd th t it w s divine yste y, V uv p sitive y suggested th t divine igin is n t equi ed t define the c ncept f justice. In the w ds f V. . Nedunchezhiy n, justice cc ding t V uv "dwe s in the inds f th se wh h ve kn w edge f the st nd d f ight nd w ng; s t deceit dwe s in the inds which b eed f ud."< ef n e="S njeevi_Se in P pe s"/>
St icis
[[Fi e:Epictetus.jpg|thu b|up ight|Epictetus]]
The St ic phi s phe Epictetus p sited th t the g e test g d w s c ntent ent nd se enity. Pe ce f ind, p thei , w s f the highest v ue; se f- ste y ve ne's desi es nd e ti ns e ds t spi itu pe ce. The "unc nque b e wi " is cent t this phi s phy. The individu 's wi sh u d be independent nd invi te. wing pe s n t distu b the ent equi ib iu is, in essence, ffe ing y u se f in s ve y. If pe s n is f ee t nge y u t wi , y u h ve n c nt ve y u inte n w d, nd the ef e n f eed . F eed f te i tt ch ents is s necess y. If thing b e ks, the pe s n sh u d n t be upset, but e ize it w s thing th t c u d b e k. Si i y, if s e ne sh u d die, th se c se t the sh u d h d t thei se enity bec use the ved ne w s de f f esh nd b d destined t de th. St ic phi s phy s ys t ccept things th t c nn t be ch nged, esigning nese f t the existence nd endu ing in ti n f shi n. De th is n t fe ed. Pe p e d n t " se" thei ife, but inste d " etu n", f they e etu ning t G d (wh initi y g ve wh t the pe s n is s pe s n). Epictetus s id difficu t p b e s in ife sh u d n t be v ided, but the e b ced. They e spi itu exe cises needed f the he th f the spi it, just s physic exe cise is equi ed f the he th f the b dy. He s st ted th t sex nd sexu desi e e t be v ided s the g e test th e t t the integ ity nd equi ib iu f n's ind. bstinence is high y desi b e. Epictetus s id e ining bstinent in the f ce f te pt ti n w s vict y f which n c u d be p ud.< ef n e="S h ki nS h ki n1966"/>
C nte p y vi tue ethics
de n vi tue ethics w s p pu ized du ing the te 20th centu y in ge p t due t eviv f ist te i nis , nd s esp nse t G.E. . nsc be's "de n Phi s phy". nsc be gues th t c nsequenti ist nd de nt gic ethics e n y fe sib e s unive s the ies if the tw sch s g und the se ves in divine w. s deep y dev ted Ch isti n he se f, nsc be p p sed th t eithe th se wh d n t give ethic c edence t n ti ns f divine w t ke up vi tue ethics, which d es n t necessit te unive s ws s gents the se ves e investig ted f vi tue vice nd he d up t "unive s st nd ds", th t th se wh wish t be uti it i n c nsequenti ist g und thei the ies in e igi us c nvicti n.< ef n e="V ies">Template:Cite b k</ ef> sd i cInty e, wh w te the b k fte Vi tue, w s key c nt ibut nd p p nent f de n vi tue ethics, th ugh s e c i th t cInty e supp ts e tivistic cc unt f vi tue b sed n cu tu n s, n t bjective st nd ds.< ef n e="V ies"/> th Nussb u , c nte p y vi tue ethicist, bjects t cInty e's e tivis , ng th t f the s, nd esp nds t e tivist bjecti ns t f n bjective cc unt in he w k "N n- e tive Vi tues: n ist te i n pp ch".< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> H weve , Nussb u 's ccus ti n f e tivis ppe s t be is e ding. In Wh se Justice, Wh se ti n ity?, cInty e's biti n f t king ti n p th bey nd e tivis w s quite c e when he st ted " iv c i s de by diffe ent t diti ns […] e t be ev u ted […] with ut e tivis " (p. 354) bec use indeed " ti n deb te between nd ti n ch ice ng iv t diti ns is p ssib e” (p. 352). C p ete C nduct P incip es f the 21st Centu y< ef n e="ethics">J hn Newt n, Ph.D., C p ete C nduct P incip es f the 21st Centu y (2000). ISBN 0-9673705-7-4.</ ef> b ended the E ste n vi tue ethics nd the Weste n vi tue ethics, with s e dific ti ns t suit the 21st Centu y, nd f ed p t f c nte p y vi tue ethics.< ef n e="ethics" />
ti e J. d e desc ibed ist t e's Nic che n Ethics s "unique b k in the Weste n t diti n f phi s phy, the n y ethics th t is s und, p ctic , nd und g tic."[1]
ne j t end in c nte p y vi tue ethics is the de n St icis ve ent.
Intuitive ethics
Ethic intuiti nis ( s c ed intuiti nis ) is f i y f views in episte gy ( nd, n s e definiti ns, et physics). t ini u , ethic intuiti nis is the thesis th t u intuitive w eness f v ue, intuitive kn w edge f ev u tive f cts, f s the f und ti n f u ethic kn w edge.
The view is t its c e f und ti n is b ut kn w edge: it is the view th t s e t uths c n be kn wn n n-infe enti y (i.e., kn wn with ut ne needing t infe the f the t uths ne be ieves). Such n episte gic view i p ies th t the e e be iefs with p p siti n c ntents; s it i p ies c gnitivis . s such, ethic intuiti nis is t be c nt sted with c he entist pp ches t episte gy, such s th se th t depend n ef ective equi ib iu .< ef n e="Sh fe - nd u & Cune f und ti n is ">Sh fe - nd u & Cune (2012), p. 385</ ef>
Th ugh ut the phi s phic ite tu e, the te "ethic intuiti nis " is f equent y used with signific nt v i ti n in its sense. This tic e's f cus n f und ti n is ef ects the c e c it ents f c nte p y se f-identified ethic intuiti nists.< ef n e="Sh fe - nd u & Cune f und ti n is " />< ef n e="SEP">St tt n- ke (2014) http://p t .st nf d.edu/ent ies/intuiti nis -ethics/</ ef>
Sufficient y b d y defined, ethic intuiti nis c n be t ken t enc p ss c gnitivist f s f sense the y.< ef n e="St tt n- ke senti ent is ">St tt n- ke (2013), p. 337</ ef> It is usu y fu the e t ken s essenti t ethic intuiti nis th t the e be se f-evident p i i kn w edge; this c unts g inst c nside ing sense the y t be species f intuiti nis . (See the ti n intuiti n ve sus sense secti n f this tic e f fu the discussi n.)
Ethic intuiti nis w s fi st c e y sh wn in use by the phi s phe F ncis Hutches n. te ethic intuiti nists f inf uence nd n te inc ude Hen y Sidgwick, G.E. e, H d thu P ich d, C.S. ewis nd, st inf uenti y, be t udi.
bjecti ns t ethic intuiti nis inc ude whethe n t the e e bjective v ues ( n ssu pti n which the ethic syste is b sed up n) the questi n f why ny dis g ee ve ethics if they e bs ute, nd whethe cc 's z c nce s such the y ut enti e y.
Hed nis
Hed nis p sits th t the p incip ethic is xi izing p e su e nd ini izing p in. The e e seve sch s f Hed nist th ught nging f th se dv c ting the indu gence f even ent y desi es t th se te ching pu suit f spi itu b iss. In thei c nside ti n f c nsequences, they nge f th se dv c ting se f-g tific ti n eg d ess f the p in nd expense t the s, t th se st ting th t the st ethic pu suit xi izes p e su e nd h ppiness f the st pe p e.< ef n e="S h ki nS h ki n1966"/>
Cy en ic hed nis
F unded by istippus f Cy ene, Cy en ics supp ted i edi te g tific ti n p e su e. "E t, d ink nd be e y, f t w we die." Even f eeting desi es sh u d be indu ged, f fe the pp tunity sh u d be f eve st. The e w s itt e t n c nce n with the futu e, the p esent d in ting in the pu suit f i edi te p e su e. Cy en ic hed nis enc u ged the pu suit f enj y ent nd indu gence with ut hesit ti n, be ieving p e su e t be the n y g d.< ef n e="S h ki nS h ki n1966"/>
Epicu e nis
Epicu e n ethics is hed nist f f vi tue ethics. Epicu us "p esented sust ined gu ent th t p e su e, c ect y unde st d, wi c incide with vi tue."< ef>t .st nf d.edu/ent ies/ethics- ncient/#9 ncient Ethic The y, St nf d Encyc pedi f Phi s phy.</ ef> He ejected the ext e is f the Cy en ics, be ieving s e p e su es nd indu gences t be det i ent t hu n beings. Epicu e ns bse ved th t indisc i in te indu gence s eti es esu ted in neg tive c nsequences. S e expe iences we e the ef e ejected ut f h nd, nd s e unp e s nt expe iences endu ed in the p esent t ensu e bette ife in the futu e. T Epicu us, the su u b nu , g e test g d, w s p udence, exe cised th ugh de ti n nd c uti n. Excessive indu gence c n be dest uctive t p e su e nd c n even e d t p in. F ex p e, e ting ne f d t ften kes pe s n se t ste f it. E ting t uch f d t nce e ds t disc f t nd i -he th. P in nd fe we e t be v ided. iving w s essenti y g d, b ing p in nd i ness. De th w s n t t be fe ed. Fe w s c nside ed the s u ce f st unh ppiness. C nque ing the fe f de th w u d n tu y e d t h ppie ife. Epicu us e s ned if the e we e n fte ife nd i t ity, the fe f de th w s i ti n . If the e w s n ife fte de th, then the pe s n w u d n t be ive t suffe , fe , w y; he w u d be n n-existent in de th. It is i ti n t f et ve ci cu st nces th t d n t exist, such s ne's st te f de th in the bsence f n fte ife.< ef n e="S h ki nS h ki n1966"/>
St te c nsequenti is
St te c nsequenti is , s kn wn s hist c nsequenti is ,< ef n e=" e dings">Template:Cite b k</ ef> is n ethic the y th t ev u tes the w th f n cti n b sed n h w uch it c nt ibutes t the b sic g ds f st te.< ef n e= e dings/> The St nf d Encyc pedi f Phi s phy desc ibes hist c nsequenti is , d ting b ck t the 5th centu y BC, s " e k b y s phistic ted ve si n b sed n p u ity f int insic g ds t ken s c nstitutive f hu n we f e".< ef>F se , Ch is, "t .st nf d.edu/ent ies/ his / his ", The St nf d Encyc pedi f Phi s phy, Edw d N. Z t .</ ef> Un ike uti it i nis , which views p e su e s g d, "the b sic g ds in hist c nsequenti ist thinking e … de , te i we th, nd inc e se in p pu ti n".< ef n e="C b idge">Template:Cite b k</ ef> Du ing zi's e , w nd f ines we e c n, nd p pu ti n g wth w s seen s necessity f h ni us s ciety. The " te i we th" f hist c nsequenti is efe s t b sic needs ike she te nd c thing, nd the " de " f hist c nsequenti is efe s t zi's st nce g inst w f e nd vi ence, which he viewed s p int ess nd th e t t s ci st bi ity.< ef n e="N den">Template:Cite b k</ ef>
St nf d sin gist D vid Shephe d Nivis n, in The C b idge Hist y f ncient Chin , w ites th t the g ds f his " e inte e ted: e b sic we th, then e ep ducti n; e pe p e, then e p ducti n nd we th … if pe p e h ve p enty, they w u d be g d, fi i , kind, nd s n unp b e tic y."< ef n e="C b idge"/> The hists be ieved th t ity is b sed n "p ting the benefit f unde he ven nd e i in ting h t unde he ven". In c nt st t Benth 's views, st te c nsequenti is is n t uti it i n bec use it is n t hed nistic individu istic. The i p t nce f utc es th t e g d f the c unity utweighs the i p t nce f individu p e su e nd p in.< ef n e="H ndb k">Template:Cite b k</ ef>
C nsequenti is
Template:See s C nsequenti is efe s t the ies th t h d the c nsequences f p ticu cti n f the b sis f ny v id judg ent b ut th t cti n ( c e te st uctu e f judg ent, see u e c nsequenti is ). Thus, f c nsequenti ist st ndp int, y ight cti n is ne th t p duces g d utc e, c nsequence. This view is ften exp essed s the ph is "The ends justify the e ns".
The te "c nsequenti is " w s c ined by G.E. . nsc be in he ess y "de n Phi s phy" in 1958, t desc ibe wh t she s w s the cent e f ce t in the ies, such s th se p p unded by i nd Sidgwick.< ef n e=" nsc be">Template:Cite j u n</ ef> Since then, the te h s bec e c n in Eng ish- ngu ge ethic the y.
The defining fe tu e f c nsequenti ist the ies is the weight given t the c nsequences in ev u ting the ightness nd w ngness f cti ns.< ef n e=" ckie">Template:Cite b k</ ef> In c nsequenti ist the ies, the c nsequences f n cti n u e gene y utweigh the c nside ti ns. p t f this b sic ut ine, the e is itt e e se th t c n be unequiv c y s id b ut c nsequenti is s such. H weve , the e e s e questi ns th t ny c nsequenti ist the ies dd ess:
- Wh t s t f c nsequences c unt s g d c nsequences?
- Wh is the p i y benefici y f cti n?
- H w e the c nsequences judged nd wh judges the ?
ne w y t divide v i us c nsequenti is s is by the ny types f c nsequences th t e t ken t tte st, th t is, which c nsequences c unt s g d st tes f ff i s. cc ding t uti it i nis , g d cti n is ne th t esu ts in n inc e se nd p sitive effect, nd the best cti n is ne th t esu ts in th t effect f the g e test nu be . C se y e ted is eud i nic c nsequenti is , cc ding t which fu , f u ishing ife, which y y n t be the s e s enj ying g e t de f p e su e, is the u ti te i . Si i y, ne ight d pt n esthetic c nsequenti is , in which the u ti te i is t p duce be uty. H weve , ne ight fix n n n-psych gic g ds s the e ev nt effect. Thus, ne ight pu sue n inc e se in te i equ ity p itic ibe ty inste d f s ething ike the e ephe e "p e su e". the the ies d pt p ck ge f seve g ds, t be p ted equ y. Whethe p ticu c nsequenti ist the y f cuses n sing e g d ny, c nf icts nd tensi ns between diffe ent g d st tes f ff i s e t be expected nd ust be djudic ted.
Uti it i nis
thu b|up ight|Je e y Benth
thu b|up ight|J hn Stu t i
Uti it i nis is n ethic the y th t gues the p pe c u se f cti n is ne th t xi izes p sitive effect, such s "h ppiness", "we f e", the bi ity t ive cc ding t pe s n p efe ences.< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> Je e y Benth nd J hn Stu t i e inf uenti p p nents f this sch f th ught. In F g ent n G ve n ent Benth s ys 'it is the g e test h ppiness f the g e test nu be th t is the e su e f ight nd w ng' nd desc ibes this s fund ent xi . In n Int ducti n t the P incip es f s nd egis ti n he t ks f 'the p incip e f uti ity' but te p efe s "the g e test h ppiness p incip e".< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef>< ef n e="J hn Stu t i "> {{cite web}}
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Uti it i nis is the p dig tic ex p e f c nsequenti ist the y. This f f uti it i nis h ds th t the y c ect cti n is the ne th t p duces the best utc e f pe p e ffected by the cti n. J hn Stu t i , in his exp siti n f uti it i nis , p p sed hie chy f p e su es, e ning th t the pu suit f ce t in kinds f p e su e is e high y v ued th n the pu suit f the p e su es.< ef n e=" i ">Template:Cite b k</ ef> the n tew thy p p nents f uti it i nis e neu scientist S H is, uth f The ndsc pe, nd phi s phe Pete Singe , uth f, ngst the w ks, P ctic Ethics.
The j divisi n within uti it i nis is between ct uti it i nis nd u e uti it i nis . In ct uti it i nis , the p incip e f uti ity pp ies di ect y t e ch te n tive ct in situ ti n f ch ice. The ight ct is the ne th t b ings b ut the best esu ts ( the e st b d esu ts). In u e uti it i nis , the p incip e f uti ity dete ines the v idity f u es f c nduct ( p incip es). u e ike p ise-keeping is est b ished by king t the c nsequences f w d in which pe p e b e k p ises t wi nd w d in which p ises e binding. ight nd w ng e the f wing b e king f u es th t e s ncti ned by thei uti it i n v ue.< ef n e="C negie e n Unive sity"> {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef> p p sed " idd e g und" between these tw types is Tw - eve uti it i nis , whe e u es e pp ied in din y ci cu st nces, but with n w nce t ch se cti ns utside f such u es when unusu situ ti ns c f it.
De nt gy
De nt gic ethics de nt gy (f G eek Α0, de n, " b ig ti n, duty"; nd Α0, - gi ) is n pp ch t ethics th t dete ines g dness ightness f ex ining cts, the u es nd duties th t the pe s n d ing the ct st ve t fu fi .< ef n e="p t .st nf d.edu">Template:Cite b k</ ef> This is in c nt st t c nsequenti is , in which ightness is b sed n the c nsequences f n ct, nd n t the ct by itse f. Unde de nt gy, n ct y be c nside ed ight even if it p duces b d c nsequence,< ef> s n, be t G. 1967. 'De nt gic Ethics'. In P u Edw ds (ed.) The Encyc pedi f Phi s phy. nd n: C ie c i n: 343.</ ef> if it f ws the u e w. cc ding t the de nt gic view, pe p e h ve duty t ct in w ys th t e dee ed inhe ent y g d ("t uth-te ing" f ex p e), f w n bjective y b ig t y u e ( s in u e uti it i nis ).
K nti nis
[[Fi e:I nue K nt (p inted p t it).jpg|thu b|up ight|I nue K nt| ight]] I nue K nt's the y f ethics is c nside ed de nt gic f seve diffe ent e s ns.< ef n e=" end, B i n 2000"> end, B i n. 2000. W nd Inte n ti n Justice: K nti n Pe spective. West W te , nt i : Wi f id u ie Unive sity P ess: 19.</ ef>< ef>Ke y, Eugene. 2006. The B sics f Weste n Phi s phy. G eenw d P ess: 160.</ ef> Fi st, K nt gues th t t ct in the y ight w y, pe p e ust ct f duty (Pf icht).< ef>Template:Cite b k P ef ce nd Int ducti n t . g/Phi s phie/ /K nt,+I nue /Die+ et physik+de +Sitten/Zweite +Tei .+ et physische+ nf ngsg %C3%BCnde+de +Tugend eh e et physische nf ngsg ünde de Tugend eh e, 1797. bb tt's de nt gy t ns tes K nt's Α0.</ ef> Sec nd, K nt gued th t it w s n t the c nsequences f cti ns th t ke the ight w ng but the tives f the pe s n wh c ies ut the cti n.
K nt's gu ent th t t ct in the y ight w y ne ust ct pu e y f duty begins with n gu ent th t the highest g d ust be b th g d in itse f nd g d with ut qu ific ti n.< ef n e="t nsiti n">K nt, I nue . 1785. 'Fi st Secti n: T nsiti n f the C n ti n Kn w edge f s t the Phi s phic ', G undw k f the et physic f s.</ ef> S ething is "g d in itse f" when it is int insic y g d, nd "g d with ut qu ific ti n", when the dditi n f th t thing neve kes situ ti n ethic y w se. K nt then gues th t th se things th t e usu y th ught t be g d, such s inte igence, pe seve nce nd p e su e, f i t be eithe int insic y g d g d with ut qu ific ti n. P e su e, f ex p e, ppe s n t t be g d with ut qu ific ti n, bec use when pe p e t ke p e su e in w tching s e ne suffe , this see s t ke the situ ti n ethic y w se. He c nc udes th t the e is n y ne thing th t is t u y g d: Template:Qu teK nt then gues th t the c nsequences f n ct f wi ing c nn t be used t dete ine th t the pe s n h s g d wi ; g d c nsequences c u d ise by ccident f n cti n th t w s tiv ted by desi e t c use h t n inn cent pe s n, nd b d c nsequences c u d ise f n cti n th t w s we - tiv ted. Inste d, he c i s, pe s n h s g dwi when he ' cts ut f espect f the w'.< ef n e="t nsiti n" /> Pe p e ' ct ut f espect f the w' when they ct in s e w y bec use they h ve duty t d s . S , the n y thing th t is t u y g d in itse f is g dwi , nd g dwi is n y g d when the wi e ch ses t d s ething bec use it is th t pe s n's duty, i.e. ut f " espect" f the w. He defines espect s "the c ncept f w th which thw ts y se f- ve".< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef>
K nt's th ee signific nt f u ti ns f the c teg ic i pe tive e:
- ct n y cc ding t th t xi by which y u c n s wi th t it w u d bec e unive s w.
- ct in such w y th t y u w ys t e t hu nity, whethe in y u wn pe s n in the pe s n f ny the , neve si p y s e ns, but w ys t the s e ti e s n end.
- Eve y ti n being ust s ct s if he we e th ugh his xi w ys egis ting e be in unive s kingd f ends.
K nt gued th t the n y bs ute y g d thing is g d wi , nd s the sing e dete ining f ct f whethe n cti n is y ight is the wi , tive f the pe s n d ing it. If they e cting n b d xi , e.g. "I wi ie", then thei cti n is w ng, even if s e g d c nsequences c e f it. In his ess y, n Supp sed ight t ie Bec use f Phi nth pic C nce ns, guing g inst the p siti n f Benj in C nst nt, Des é cti ns p itiques, K nt st tes th t "Hence ie defined e e y s n intenti n y unt uthfu dec ti n t n the n d es n t equi e the dditi n c nditi n th t it ust d h t n the , s ju ists equi e in thei definiti n ( end ciu est f si quiu in p eiudiciu te ius). F ie w ys h s n the ; if n t s e hu n being, then it neve the ess d es h t hu nity in gene , in s uch s it viti tes the ve y s u ce f ight [ echtsque e] ... p ctic p incip es f ight ust c nt in ig us t uth ... This is bec use such excepti ns w u d dest y the unive s ity n cc unt f which ne they be the n e f p incip es."< ef>"Übe ein ve eintes echt us enschen iebe zu ügen", Be inische B ätte 1 (1797), 301-314; edited in: We ke in zwö f Bänden, v . 8, F nkfu t in (1977), . g/nid/20009192123 zen . g/nid/20009192123.</ ef>
Divine c nd the y
th ugh n t de nt gists e e igi us, s e be ief in the 'divine c nd the y', which is ctu y c uste f e ted the ies which essenti y st te th t n cti n is ight if G d h s dec eed th t it is ight.< ef>Wie eng , Edw d. 1983. " Defensib e Divine C nd The y". N ûs, V . 17, N . 3: 387–407.</ ef> cc ding t ph Cudw th, n Eng ish phi s phe , Wi i f ckh , ené Desc tes, nd eighteenth-centu y C vinists ccepted v i us ve si ns f this the y, s they he d th t b ig ti ns ise f G d's c nds.< ef>Cudw th, ph. 1731. T e tise C nce ning Ete n nd I ut b e ity. ep inted in 1996. S h Hutt n (ed.). C b idge: C b idge Unive sity P ess.</ ef> The Divine C nd The y is f f de nt gy bec use, cc ding t it, the ightness f ny cti n depends up n th t cti n being pe f ed bec use it is duty, n t bec use f ny g d c nsequences ising f th t cti n. If G d c nds pe p e n t t w k n S bb th, then pe p e ct ight y if they d n t w k n S bb th bec use G d h s c nded th t they d n t d s . If they d n t w k n S bb th bec use they e zy, then thei cti n is n t t u y spe king " ight", even th ugh the ctu physic cti n pe f ed is the s e. If G d c nds n t t c vet neighb 's g ds, this the y h ds th t it w u d be i t d s , even if c veting p vides the benefici utc e f d ive t succeed d we .
ne thing th t c e y distinguishes K nti n de nt gis f divine c nd de nt gy is th t K nti nis int ins th t n, s ti n being, kes the w unive s , whe e s divine c nd int ins th t G d kes the w unive s .
Disc u se ethics
thu b|Ph t g ph f Ju gen H be s, wh se the y f disc u se ethics w s inf uenced by K nti n ethics Ge n phi s phe Jü gen H be s h s p p sed the y f disc u se ethics th t he st tes is descend nt f K nti n ethics.< ef>P y w Sh b ni 2003, p. 53</ ef> He p p ses th t cti n sh u d be b sed n c unic ti n between th se inv ved, in which thei inte ests nd intenti ns e discussed s they c n be unde st d by . ejecting ny f f c e ci n nipu ti n, H be s be ieves th t g ee ent between the p ties is c uci f decisi n t be e ched.< ef>C in 2007, p. 78</ ef> ike K nti n ethics, disc u se ethics is c gnitive ethic the y, in th t it supp ses th t t uth nd f sity c n be tt ibuted t ethic p p siti ns. It s f u tes u e by which ethic cti ns c n be dete ined nd p p ses th t ethic cti ns sh u d be unive s iz b e, in si i w y t K nt's ethics.< ef n e=Sh b ni>P y w Sh b ni 2003, p. 54</ ef>
H be s gues th t his ethic the y is n i p ve ent n K nt's ethics.< ef n e=Sh b ni/> He ejects the du istic f ew k f K nt's ethics. K nt distinguished between the phen en w d, which c n be sensed nd expe ienced by hu ns, nd the n u en , spi itu w d, which is in ccessib e t hu ns. This dich t y w s necess y f K nt bec use it c u d exp in the ut n y f hu n gent: th ugh hu n is b und in the phen en w d, thei cti ns e f ee in the n u en w d. F H be s, ity ises f disc u se, which is de necess y by thei ti n ity nd needs, the th n thei f eed .< ef>P y w Sh b ni 2003, pp. 55–56</ ef>
P g tic ethics
ss ci ted with the p g tists Ch es S nde s Pei ce, Wi i J es, nd especi y J hn Dewey, p g tic ethics h ds th t c ectness ev ves si i y t scientific kn w edge: s ci y ve the c u se f ny ifeti es. Thus, we sh u d p i itize s ci ef ve tte pts t cc unt f c nsequences, individu vi tue duty ( th ugh these y be w thwhi e tte pts, if s ci ef is p vided f ).< ef n e= f ette2000>Template:Cite b k</ ef>
Ethics f c e
C e ethics c nt sts with e we -kn wn ethic de s, such s c nsequenti ist the ies (e.g. uti it i nis ) nd de nt gic the ies (e.g., K nti n ethics) in th t it seeks t inc p te t diti n y fe inized vi tues nd v ues th t—p p nents f c e ethics c ntend— e bsent in such t diti n de s f ethics. These v ues inc ude the i p t nce f e p thetic e ti nships nd c p ssi n.
C e-f cused fe inis is b nch f fe inist th ught, inf ed p i i y by ethics f c e s deve ped by C Gi ig n< ef n e="GI IG N2009" /> nd Ne N ddings.< ef>St nf d Encyc pedi f Phi s phy. {{cite web}}
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ignored (help)</ ef> This b dy f the y is c itic f h w c ing is s ci y ssigned t w en, nd c nsequent y dev ued. They w ite, "C e-f cused fe inists eg d w en's c p city f c e s hu n st ength," th t sh u d be t ught t nd expected f en s we s w en. N ddings p p ses th t ethic c ing h s the p tenti t be e c nc ete ev u tive de f di e th n n ethic f justice.< ef>N ddings, Ne : C ing: Fe inine pp ch t Ethics nd Educ ti n, pp. 3–4. Unive sity f C if ni P ess, Be ke ey, 1984.</ ef> N ddings’ c e-f cused fe inis equi es p ctic pp ic ti n f e ti n ethics, p edic ted n n ethic f c e.< ef>N ddings, Ne : W en nd Evi , p. 222. Unive sity f C if ni P ess, Be ke ey, 1989.</ ef>
Fe inist t ixi ethics
The ' et fe inist' the y f the t ixi g ze nd the t ixi < ef>Ettinge , B ch ., " t ix nd et ph sis." In: Diffe ences. V . 4, nº 3, 1992.</ ef>< ef>Ettinge , B ch ., P t -ethic t ici , Gedis , 2019.</ ef> ti e-sp ce, c ined nd deve ped B ch . Ettinge since 1985,< ef>B ch . Ettinge , The t ixi G ze. Fine t, eeds Unive sity, 1995.</ ef>< ef>B ch . Ettinge , "T ns-Subjective T nsfe enti B de sp ce." In: zin, V., T u kin , ., nd Sepp , ., eds. D ct nd P tient. e y nd nesi . Y j vi: P i t useu Pub ic ti ns, 1997. ep inted: B i n ssu i, ed. Sh ck t Th ught. ut edge, 2002</ ef>< ef>B ch . Ettinge , "Wit(h)nessing T u nd the G ze." In: V ndenb eck, P. et eds. The F scin ting F ce f F nde s. Th ugh t nd S ciety (Eng ish, P tuguese, F e ish). St d ntwe pen, 1998</ ef>< ef>B ch . Ettinge , t ixi Subjectivity, esthetics, Ethics. V 1: 1990-2000. Ed. by G ise d P ck. Pe g ve c i n 2020</ ef> ticu tes ev uti n y phi s phic pp ch th t, in "d ing t pp ch", t use G ise d P ck's desc ipti n f Ettinge 's ethic tu n,< ef>P ck, G ise d . " esthetic Wit(h)nessing in the E f T u ." In: Eu e ic v 40 n. 4, Dece be 2010 <http://www.e .sinic .edu.tw/eu_fi e/12929220264.pdf></ ef>< ef>P ck, G ise d . Gene ti ns nd Ge g phies. ut edge, 1996.</ ef> "the p en t with the p e- te n enc unte ", vi ence t w d w en t w , nd the Sh h, h s phi s phic y est b ished the ights f e ch fe e subject ve he wn ep ductive b dy, nd ffe ed ngu ge t e te t hu n expe iences which esc pe the ph ic d in.< ef> {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef>< ef>Ettinge , B ch ., "Bey nd the De th-d ive, Bey nd the ife-d ive—Being-t w d-Bi thing with Being-t w d-Bi th. C p iesis nd the t ixi E s— et fe inist N tes." in: be nt Nupti s. Edited by P. de ssis & P. Giudici. euven Univ. P ess. 2019.</ ef> The t ixi sphe e is psychic nd sy b ic di ensi n th t the 'ph ic' ngu ge nd egu ti ns c nn t c nt . In Ettinge 's de , the e ti ns between se f nd the e f neithe ssi i ti n n ejecti n but 'c e e gence'. In he c nve s ti n with E nue evin s, 1991, Ettinge p ses th t the s u ce f hu n Ethics is fe inine- te n nd fe inine-p e- te n t ixi enc unte -event. Sexu ity nd te n ity c exist nd e n t in c nt dicti n (the c nt dicti n est b ished by Sig und F eud nd J cques c n), nd the fe inine is n t n bs ute te ity (the te ity est b ished by J cques c n nd E nue evin s). With the ' igin y esp nse- bi ity', 'wit(h)nessing', 'b de inking', 'c unic ing', 'c -p ssi n', 'seducti n int ife'< ef>"C unic ing". In: P stGende : Sexu ity nd Pe f tiveivity in J p nese Cu tu e. Ed. ye et Z h . C b idge Sch s Pub ishing, 2010</ ef>< ef> ndevi e, K t, Seducti n int ife. NY: nt p s, 2016.</ ef> nd the p cesses invested by ffects th t ccu in the Ettinge i n t ixi ti e-sp ce, the fe inine is p esented s the s u ce f hu nized Ethics in gende s. C p ssi n nd Seducti n int ife ccu s e ie th n the p i y seducti n which p sses th ugh enig tic sign s f the te n sexu ity cc ding t Je n p nche, since it is ctive in 'c e e gence' in 'withnessing' f ny b n subject, e ie t its bi th. Ettinge suggests t E nue evin s in thei c nve s ti ns in 1991, th t the fe inine unde st d vi the t ixi pe spective is the he t nd the s u ce f Ethics.< ef>E nue evin s nd B ch . Ettinge , Ti e is the B e th f the Spi it. xf d: useu f de n t, 1993.</ ef>< ef>E nue evin s nd B ch . Ettinge , Que di it Eu ydice?"/"Wh t W u d Eu ydice S y? P is: B E te ie , 1997. ep inted in then : Phi s phic Studies. V . 2, 2006. http:// kti. t/ then /pdf/2/100-145.pdf</ ef> t the beginning f ife, n igin y 'f scin nce' fe t by the inf nt< ef>B ch . Ettinge , "F scin nce. The W n-t -w n (Gi -t - / the ) t ixi Fe inine Diffe ence." In: P ck, G ise d , ed. Psych n ysis nd the I ge. xf d: B ckwe , 2006.</ ef> is e ted t the p ss ge f esp nse- bi ity t esp nsibi ity, f c -p ssi n t c p ssi n, nd f wit(h)nessing t witnessing pe ted nd t ns itted by the / the . The 'diffe enti ti n in j intness' th t is t the he t f the t ixi b de sp ce h s deep i p ic ti ns in the e ti n fie d< ef>B ch . Ettinge , "Di ti nd the t ixi T nsfe ence: Psych n ytic Enc unte -Event s P egn ncy in Be uty." In: de e we, V., Ch is N., Vi j en, H., eds. c ss the Th esh d. Pete ng, 2007.</ ef> nd f the ethics f c e.< ef>Bi git . K ise , K th in Thie e, "If Y u D We , C y! The Diffe ence f the Hu ne: n Inte view with B ch . Ettinge ". phi S PHI , V u e 8, Nu be 1, Winte 2018, pp. 101-125 ( tic e). https://d i. g/10.1353/phi.2018.0005</ ef> The t ixi the y th t p p ses new w ys t ethink sexu diffe ence th ugh the f uidity f b und ies inf s esthetics nd ethics f c p ssi n, c ying nd n n- b nd n ent in 'subjectivity s enc unte -event'.< ef>S ith, ie e, "Subjectivity s Enc unte : Fe inine Ethics in the W k f B ch ichtenbe g-Ettinge nd nne En ight", Hyp ti
V . 28, N . 3 (SU E 2013)</ ef>< ef> ngie V e nd Cigde Esin, " ve ent, E b ce: d i n C v e with B ch ichtenbe g Ettinge ( nd the De th D ive)", Hyp ti 36 (1):101-119 (2021)</ ef> It h s bec e signific nt in Psych n ysis nd in t nsgende studies.< ef>C v n gh, Shei , "B ch . Ettinge , J cques c n nd Ti esi s: The the Sexu Diffe ence". The Site f C nte p y Psych n ysis, n.18 2018. http://www.the-site. g.uk/sitegeist/sp ing-2018/b ch - -ettinge -j cques- c n- nd-ti esi s-the- the -sexu -diffe ence/3/</ ef>
e ethics
e ethics is n ethic the y b sed n f i y es.< ef n e=" es">Template:Cite b k</ ef> Un ike vi tue ethics, e ethics is n t individu istic. ity is de ived f pe s n's e ti nship with thei c unity.< ef n e="F se ">Template:Cite b k</ ef> C nfuci n ethics is n ex p e f e ethics< ef n e=" es"/> th ugh this is n t st ightf w d y unc ntested.< ef>Si , y, 2015, "Why C nfucius' Ethics is Vi tue Ethics", in Besse -J nes nd S te (2015), pp. 63–76</ ef> C nfuci n es cente und the c ncept f fi i piety xi , espect f f i y e be s.< ef n e="Ch ng">Template:Cite b k</ ef> cc ding t ge T. es nd Hen y se nt, "C nfuci n n tivity is defined by iving ne's f i y es t xi u effect." ity is dete ined th ugh pe s n's fu fi ent f e, such s th t f p ent chi d. C nfuci n es e n t ti n , nd igin te th ugh the xin, hu n e ti ns.< ef n e="F se "/>
n chist ethics
n chist ethics is n ethic the y b sed n the studies f n chist thinke s. The biggest c nt ibut t n chist ethics is Pete K p tkin.
St ting f the p e ise th t the g f ethic phi s phy sh u d be t he p hu ns d pt nd th ive in ev uti n y te s, K p tkin's ethic f ew k uses bi gy nd nth p gy s b sis – in de t scientific y est b ish wh t wi best en b e given s ci de t th ive bi gic y nd s ci y – nd dv c tes ce t in beh vi u p ctices t enh nce hu nity's c p city f f eed nd we -being, n e y p ctices which e ph sise s id ity, equ ity, nd justice.
K p tkin gues th t ethics itse f is ev uti n y, nd is inhe ited s s t f s ci instinct th ugh cu tu hist y, nd by s , he ejects ny e igi us nd t nscendent exp n ti n f ity. The igin f ethic fee ing in b th ni s nd hu ns c n be f und, he c i s, in the n tu f ct f "s ci ity" ( utu istic sy bi sis), which hu ns c n then c bine with the instinct f justice (i.e. equ ity) nd then with the p ctice f e s n t c nst uct n n-supe n tu nd n chistic syste f ethics.< ef> {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef> K p tkin suggests th t the p incip e f equ ity t the c e f n chis is the s e s the G den u e: This p incip e f t e ting the s s ne wishes t be t e ted nese f, wh t is it but the ve y s e p incip e s equ ity, the fund ent p incip e f n chis ? nd h w c n ny ne n ge t be ieve hi se f n n chist un ess he p ctices it? We d n t wish t be u ed. nd by this ve y f ct, d we n t dec e th t we u se ves wish t u e n b dy? We d n t wish t be deceived, we wish w ys t be t d n thing but the t uth. nd by this ve y f ct, d we n t dec e th t we u se ves d n t wish t deceive nyb dy, th t we p ise t w ys te the t uth, n thing but the t uth, the wh e t uth? We d n t wish t h ve the f uits f u b st en f us. nd by th t ve y f ct, d we n t dec e th t we espect the f uits f the s' b ? By wh t ight indeed c n we de nd th t we sh u d be t e ted in ne f shi n, ese ving it t u se ves t t e t the s in f shi n enti e y diffe ent? u sense f equ ity ev ts t such n ide .< ef> {{cite web}}
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P st de n ethics
ntihu nists such s uis thusse , iche F uc u t nd st uctu ists such s nd B thes ch enged the p ssibi ities f individu gency nd the c he ence f the n ti n f the 'individu ' itse f. This w s n the b sis th t pe s n identity w s, in the st p t, s ci c nst ucti n. s c itic the y deve ped in the te 20th centu y, p st-st uctu is s ught t p b e tize hu n e ti nships t kn w edge nd ' bjective' e ity. J cques De id gued th t ccess t e ning nd the ' e ' w s w ys defe ed, nd s ught t de nst te vi ec u se t the inguistic e th t "the e is n utside-text/n n-text" ("i n'y p s de h s-texte" is ften ist ns ted s "the e is n thing utside the text"); t the s e ti e, Je n B ud i d the ised th t signs nd sy b s si u c sk e ity ( nd eventu y the bsence f e ity itse f), p ticu y in the c nsu e w d.
P st-st uctu is nd p st de nis gue th t ethics ust study the c p ex nd e ti n c nditi ns f cti ns. si p e ign ent f ide s f ight nd p ticu cts is n t p ssib e. The e wi w ys be n ethic e inde th t c nn t be t ken int cc unt ften even ec gnized. Such the ists find n tive ( , f wing Nietzsche nd F uc u t, gene gy) t be he pfu t f unde st nding ethics bec use n tive is w ys b ut p ticu ived expe iences in thei c p exity the th n the ssign ent f n ide n t sep te nd individu cti ns.
Zyg unt B u n s ys p st de nity is best desc ibed s de nity with ut i usi n, the i usi n being the be ief th t hu nity c n be ep i ed by s e ethic p incip e. P st de nity c n be seen in this ight s ccepting the essy n tu e f hu nity s unch nge b e. In this p st de n w d, the e ns t ct c ective y nd g b y t s ve ge-sc e p b e s h ve been but disc edited, dis nt ed st. P b e s c n be h nd ed n y c y nd e ch n its wn. p b e -h nd ing e ns bui ding ini- de t the expense f de e sewhe e, nd t the c st f ising g b dis de s we s dep eting the sh inking supp ies f es u ces which ke de ing p ssib e. He c nside s E nue evin s's ethics s p st de n. Un ike the de n ethic phi s phy which e ves the the n the utside f the se f s n biv ent p esence, evin s's phi s phy e d its he s neighb nd s c uci ch cte in the p cess th ugh which the se f c es int its wn.< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef>
D vid C uzens H y st tes th t E nue evin s's w itings n the f ce f the the nd De id 's edit ti ns n the e ev nce f de th t ethics e signs f the "ethic tu n" in C ntinent phi s phy th t ccu ed in the 1980s nd 1990s. H y desc ibes p st-c itique ethics s the " b ig ti ns th t p esent the se ves s necess i y t be fu fi ed but e neithe f ced n ne e enf ce b e".[2]
H y's p st-c itique de uses the te ethic esist nce. Ex p es f this w u d be n individu 's esist nce t c nsu e is in et e t t si p e but pe h ps h de ifesty e, n individu 's esist nce t te in i ness. H y desc ibes evin s's cc unt s "n t the tte pt t use p we g inst itse f, t bi ize sect s f the p pu ti n t exe t thei p itic p we ; the ethic esist nce is inste d the esist nce f the p we ess".[3]
H y c nc udes th t Template:Qu te
pp ied ethics
pp ied ethics is discip ine f phi s phy th t tte pts t pp y ethic the y t e - ife situ ti ns. The discip ine h s ny speci ized fie ds, such s enginee ing ethics, bi ethics, ge ethics, pub ic se vice ethics nd business ethics.
Specific questi ns
pp ied ethics is used in s e spects f dete ining pub ic p icy, s we s by individu s f cing difficu t decisi ns. The s t f questi ns dd essed by pp ied ethics inc ude: "Is getting n b ti n i ?"; "Is euth n si i ?"; "Is ffi tive cti n ight w ng?"; "Wh t e hu n ights, nd h w d we dete ine the ?"; "D ni s h ve ights s we ?"; nd "D individu s h ve the ight f se f-dete in ti n?"< ef n e=bbc/>
e specific questi n c u d be: "If s e ne e se c n ke bette ut f his/he ife th n I c n, is it then t s c ifice yse f f the if needed?" With ut these questi ns, the e is n c e fu c u n which t b nce w, p itics, nd the p ctice f bit ti n—in f ct, n c n ssu pti ns f p ticip nts—s the bi ity t f u te the questi ns e p i t ights b ncing. But n t questi ns studied in pp ied ethics c nce n pub ic p icy. F ex p e, king ethic judg ents eg ding questi ns such s, "Is ying w ys w ng?" nd, "If n t, when is it pe issib e?" is p i t ny etiquette.
Pe p e, in gene , e e c f t b e with dich t ies (tw pp sites). H weve , in ethics, the issues e st ften u tif ceted nd the best-p p sed cti ns dd ess ny diffe ent e s c ncu ent y. In ethic decisi ns, the nswe is st neve "yes n " " ight w ng" st te ent. ny butt ns e pushed s th t the ve c nditi n is i p ved nd n t t the benefit f ny p ticu f cti n.
nd it h s n t n y been sh wn th t pe p e c nside the ch cte f the gent (i.e. p incip e i p ied in vi tue ethics), the deed f the cti n (i.e. p incip e i p ied in de nt gy), nd the c nsequences f the cti n (i.e. p incip e i p ied in uti it i nis ) when f u ting judg ents, but e ve th t the effect f e ch f these th ee c p nents depends n the v ue f e ch c p nent.< ef n e=" judg ent">Template:Cite j u n</ ef>
P ticu fie ds f pp ic ti n
Bi ethics
Template:See s Bi ethics is the study f c nt ve si ethics b ught b ut by dv nces in bi gy nd edicine. Bi ethicists e c nce ned with the ethic questi ns th t ise in the e ti nships ng ife sciences, bi techn gy, edicine, p itics, w, nd phi s phy. It s inc udes the study f the e c np ce questi ns f v ues ("the ethics f the din y") th t ise in p i y c e nd the b nches f edicine.
Bi ethics s needs t dd ess e e ging bi techn gies th t ffect b sic bi gy nd futu e hu ns. These deve p ents inc ude c ning, gene the py, hu n genetic enginee ing, st ethics nd ife in sp ce,< ef> {{cite web}}
: Empty citation (help)</ ef> nd nipu ti n f b sic bi gy th ugh te ed DN , N nd p teins, e.g. "th ee p ent b by, whe e b by is b n f genetic y dified e b y s, w u d h ve DN f the , f the nd f fe e d n .< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> C esp nding y, new bi ethics s need t dd ess ife t its c e. F ex p e, bi tic ethics v ue g nic gene/p tein ife itse f nd seek t p p g te it.< ef n e="Bi ethics">Template:Cite j u n</ ef> With such ife-cente ed p incip es, ethics y secu e c s gic futu e f ife.< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef>
Business ethics
Business ethics ( s c p te ethics) is f f pp ied ethics p fessi n ethics th t ex ines ethic p incip es nd ethic p b e s th t ise in business envi n ent, inc uding fie ds ike edic ethics. Business ethics ep esents the p ctices th t ny individu g up exhibits within n g niz ti n th t c n neg tive y p sitive y ffect the businesses c e v ues. It pp ies t spects f business c nduct nd is e ev nt t the c nduct f individu s nd enti e g niz ti ns.
Business ethics h s b th n tive nd desc iptive di ensi ns. s c p te p ctice nd c ee speci iz ti n, the fie d is p i i y n tive. c de ics tte pting t unde st nd business beh vi e p y desc iptive eth ds. The nge nd qu ntity f business ethic issues ef ect the inte cti n f p fit- xi izing beh vi with n n-ec n ic c nce ns. Inte est in business ethics cce e ted d tic y du ing the 1980s nd 1990s, b th within j c p ti ns nd within c de i . F ex p e, t d y st j c p ti ns p te thei c it ent t n n-ec n ic v ues unde he dings such s ethics c des nd s ci esp nsibi ity ch te s. d S ith s id, "Pe p e f the s e t de se d eet t gethe , even f e i ent nd dive si n, but the c nve s ti n ends in c nspi cy g inst the pub ic, in s e c nt iv nce t ise p ices."< ef>S ith, (1776/1952). n Inqui y Int the N tu e nd C uses f the We th f N ti ns. Chic g , I in is: Unive sity f Chic g P ess, p. 55.</ ef> G ve n ents use ws nd egu ti ns t p int business beh vi in wh t they pe ceive t be benefici di ecti ns. Ethics i p icit y egu tes e s nd det i s f beh vi th t ie bey nd g ve n ent c nt .< ef>Be e, . ., & e ns, G.C. (1932). The de n C p ti n nd P iv te P pe ty. New Je sey: T ns cti n Pub ishe s. In this b k, Be e nd e ns bse ve, "C p ti ns h ve ce sed t be e e y eg devices th ugh which the p iv te business t ns cti ns f individu s y be c ied n. Th ugh sti uch used f this pu p se, the c p te f h s cqui ed uch ge signific nce. The c p ti n h s, in f ct, bec e b th eth d f p pe ty tenu e nd e ns f g nizing ec n ic ife. G wn t t e end us p p ti ns, the e y be s id t h ve ev ved 'c p te syste '— s the e nce w s feud syste —which h s tt cted t itse f c bin ti n f tt ibutes nd p we s, nd h s tt ined deg ee f p inence entit ing it t be de t with s j s ci instituti n. ... We e ex ining this instituti n p b b y bef e it h s tt ined its zenith. Spect cu s its ise h s been, eve y indic ti n see s t be th t the syste wi ve f w d t p p ti ns which st gge i gin ti n t d y ... They [ n ge ent] h ve p ced the c unity in p siti n t de nd th t the de n c p ti n se ve n t n y the wne s ... but s ciety." p. 1.</ ef> The e e gence f ge c p ti ns with i ited e ti nships nd sensitivity t the c unities in which they pe te cce e ted the deve p ent f f ethics egi es.< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef>< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef> Business ethics s e tes t unethic ctivities f inte g niz ti n e ti nships, such s st tegic i nces, buye -supp ie e ti nships, j int ventu es. Such unethic p ctices inc ude, f inst nce, pp tunistic beh vi s, c nt ct vi ti ns, nd deceitfu p ctices.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> S e c p ti ns h ve t ied t bu nish thei ethic i ge by c e ting whist e-b we p tecti ns, such s n ny ity. In the c se f Citi, they c this the Ethics H t ine,< ef>www.citig up.c. {{cite web}}
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chine ethics
In chines: Te ching b ts ight f W ng, Wende W ch nd C in en c nc ude th t issues in chine ethics wi ike y d ive dv nce ent in unde st nding f hu n ethics by f cing us t dd ess g ps in de n n tive the y nd by p viding p tf f expe i ent investig ti n.< ef n e=W ch2008>Template:Cite b k</ ef> The eff t t ctu y p g chine tifici gent t beh ve s th ugh insti ed with sense f ethics< ef>Template:Cite g zine</ ef> equi es new specificity in u n tive the ies, especi y eg ding spects cust i y c nside ed c n-sense. F ex p e, chines, un ike hu ns, c n supp t wide se ecti n f e ning g ith s, nd c nt ve sy h s isen ve the e tive ethic e its f these pti ns. This y e pen c ssic deb tes f n tive ethics f ed in new (high y technic ) te s.
i it y ethics
i it y ethics e c nce ned with questi ns eg ding the pp ic ti n f f ce nd the eth s f the s die nd e ften unde st d s pp ied p fessi n ethics.< ef>. No. 2.{{cite news}}
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ignored (help)</ ef> Just w the y is gene y seen t set the b ckg und te s f i it y ethics. H weve individu c unt ies nd t diti ns h ve diffe ent fie ds f ttenti n.< ef>Template:Cite b k</ ef>
i it y ethics inv ves u tip e sub e s, inc uding the f wing ng the s:
- wh t, if ny, sh u d be the ws f w .
- justific ti n f the initi ti n f i it y f ce.
- decisi ns b ut wh y be t geted in w f e.
- decisi ns n ch ice f we p n y, nd wh t c te effects such we p n y y h ve.
- st nd ds f h nd ing i it y p is ne s.
- eth ds f de ing with vi ti ns f the ws f w .
P itic ethics
P itic ethics ( s kn wn s p itic ity pub ic ethics) is the p ctice f king judge ents b ut p itic cti n nd p itic gents.< ef>Th ps n, Dennis F. "P itic Ethics". Inte n ti n Encyc pedi f Ethics, ed. Hugh F ette (B ckwe Pub ishing, 2012).</ ef>
Pub ic sect ethics
Pub ic sect ethics is set f p incip es th t guide pub ic ffici s in thei se vice t thei c nstituents, inc uding thei decisi n- king n beh f f thei c nstituents. Fund ent t the c ncept f pub ic sect ethics is the n ti n th t decisi ns nd cti ns e b sed n wh t best se ves the pub ic's inte ests, s pp sed t the ffici 's pe s n inte ests (inc uding fin nci inte ests) se f-se ving p itic inte ests.< ef>See, f ex p e, w k f Institute f c G ve n ent, t -i g. g/t ust www.c -i g. g/t ust.</ ef>
Pub ic ti n ethics
Pub ic ti n ethics is the set f p incip es th t guide the w iting nd pub ishing p cess f p fessi n pub ic ti ns. T f w these p incip es, uth s ust ve ify th t the pub ic ti n d es n t c nt in p gi is pub ic ti n bi s.< ef n e="Pub ic ti n ethics">Template:Cite j u n</ ef> s w y t v id isc nduct in ese ch these p incip es c n s pp y t expe i ents th t e efe enced n yzed in pub ic ti ns by ensu ing the d t is ec ded h nest y nd ccu te y.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef>
P gi is is the f i u e t give c edit t n the uth 's w k ide s, when it is used in the pub ic ti n.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> It is the b ig ti n f the edit f the j u n t ensu e the tic e d es n t c nt in ny p gi is bef e it is pub ished.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> If pub ic ti n th t h s e dy been pub ished is p ven t c nt in p gi is , the edit f the j u n c n et ct the tic e.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> n the c itic pub ic ti n ethics issue pe t ins t cit ti n p gi is when ese che s c py nd p ste cit ti n ent ies f the pub ished w ks with ut e ding the igin s u ce.< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef>
Pub ic ti n bi s ccu s when the pub ic ti n is ne-sided "p ejudiced g inst esu ts".< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> In best p ctice, n uth sh u d t y t inc ude inf ti n f p ties inv ved, ffected by the t pic. If n uth is p ejudiced g inst ce t in esu ts, th n it c n " e d t e ne us c nc usi ns being d wn".< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef>
isc nduct in ese ch c n ccu when n expe i ente f sifies esu ts.< ef n e="j25175246">Template:Cite j u n</ ef> F se y ec ded inf ti n ccu s when the ese che "f kes" inf ti n d t , which w s n t used when c nducting the ctu expe i ent.< ef n e="j25175246"/> By f king the d t , the ese che c n te the esu ts f the expe i ent t bette fit the hyp thesis they igin y p edicted. When c nducting edic ese ch, it is i p t nt t h n the he thc e ights f p tient by p tecting thei n ny ity in the pub ic ti n.< ef n e="Pub ic ti n ethics"/>
espect f ut n y is the p incip e th t decisi n- king sh u d w individu s t be ut n us; they sh u d be b e t ke decisi ns th t pp y t thei wn ives. This e ns th t individu s sh u d h ve c nt f thei ives. Justice is the p incip e th t decisi n- ke s ust f cus n cti ns th t e f i t th se ffected. Ethic decisi ns need t be c nsistent with the ethic the y. The e e c ses whe e the n ge ent h s de decisi ns th t see t be unf i t the e p yees, sh eh de s, nd the st keh de s (S n, 1992, pp49). Such decisi ns e unethic .
e ti n ethics
e ti n ethics e e ted t n ethics f c e.< ef n e="GI IG N2009">Template:Cite b k</ ef>They e used in qu it tive ese ch, especi y ethn g phy nd ut ethn g phy. ese che s wh e p y e ti n ethics v ue nd espect the c nnecti n between the se ves nd the pe p e they study, nd "...between ese che s nd the c unities in which they ive nd w k." (E is, 2007, p. 4).< ef>Template:Cite j u n</ ef> e ti n ethics s he p ese che s unde st nd difficu t issues such s c nducting ese ch n inti te the s th t h ve died nd deve ping f iendships with thei p ticip nts.< ef>E is, C. (1986). Fishe f k. Tw c unities n Ches pe ke B y. exingt n: Unive sity P ess f Kentucky.</ ef>< ef>E is, C. (1995).Fin neg ti ti ns: st y f ve, ss, nd ch nic i ness. Phi de phi : Te p e Unive sity P ess.</ ef> e ti n ethics in c se pe s n e ti nships f cent c ncept f c ntextu the py.
Ethics f n n techn gies
Ethics f n n techn gy is the study f the ethic issues e e ging f dv nces in n n techn gy.
Ethics f qu ntific ti n
Ethics f qu ntific ti n is the study f the ethic issues ss ci ted t diffe ent f s f visib e invisib e f s f qu ntific ti n.
ni ethics
ni ethics is te used in c de i t desc ibe hu n- ni e ti nships nd h w ni s ught t be t e ted. The subject tte inc udes ni ights, ni we f e, ni w, speciesis , ni c gniti n, wi d ife c nse v ti n, the st tus f n nhu n ni s, the c ncept f n nhu n pe s nh d, hu n excepti n is , the hist y f ni use, nd the ies f justice.
Ethics f techn gy
Ethics f techn gy is sub-fie d f ethics dd essing the ethic questi ns specific t the Techn gy ge. S e p inent w ks f phi s phe H ns J n s e dev ted t ethics f techn gy. The subject h s s been exp ed, f wing the w k f i Bunge, unde the te techn ethics.
psych gy
psych gy is fie d f study th t beg n s n issue in phi s phy nd th t is n w p pe y c nside ed p t f the discip ine f psych gy. S e use the te " psych gy" e tive y n w y t efe t the study f deve p ent.< ef>See, f ex p e, ps ey (2006) nd " psych gy" (2007).</ ef> H weve , the s tend t use the te e b d y t inc ude ny t pics t the inte secti n f ethics nd psych gy ( nd phi s phy f ind).< ef>See, f ex p e, D is & Stich (2008) nd W ce (2007). W ce w ites: " psych gy is the study f ity in its psych gic di ensi ns" (p. 86).</ ef> Such t pics e nes th t inv ve the ind nd e e ev nt t issues. S e f the in t pics f the fie d e esp nsibi ity, deve p ent, ch cte (especi y s e ted t vi tue ethics), t uis , psych gic eg is , uck, nd dis g ee ent.< ef>See D is & Stich (2008), §1.</ ef>
Ev uti n y ethics
Template:See s
Ev uti n y ethics c nce ns pp ches t ethics ( ity) b sed n the e f ev uti n in sh ping hu n psych gy nd beh vi . Such pp ches y be b sed in scientific fie ds such s ev uti n y psych gy s ci bi gy, with f cus n unde st nding nd exp ining bse ved ethic p efe ences nd ch ices.< ef> {{cite web}}
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Desc iptive ethics
Desc iptive ethics is n the ess phi s phic end f the spect u since it seeks t g the p ticu inf ti n b ut h w pe p e ive nd d w gene c nc usi ns b sed n bse ved p tte ns. bst ct nd the etic questi ns th t e e c e y phi s phic —such s, "Is ethic kn w edge p ssib e?"— e n t cent t desc iptive ethics. Desc iptive ethics ffe s v ue-f ee pp ch t ethics, which defines it s s ci science the th n hu nity. Its ex in ti n f ethics d es n t st t with p ec nceived the y but the investig tes bse v ti ns f ctu ch ices de by gents in p ctice. S e phi s phe s e y n desc iptive ethics nd ch ices de nd unch enged by s ciety cu tu e t de ive c teg ies, which typic y v y by c ntext. This c n e d t situ ti n ethics nd situ ted ethics. These phi s phe s ften view esthetics, etiquette, nd bit ti n s e fund ent , pe c ting "b tt up" t i p y the existence f, the th n exp icit y p esc ibe, the ies f v ue f c nduct. The study f desc iptive ethics y inc ude ex in ti ns f the f wing:
- Ethic c des pp ied by v i us g ups. S e c nside esthetics itse f the b sis f ethics— nd pe s n c e deve ped th ugh t nd st yte ing s ve y inf uenti in ne's te ethic ch ices.
- Inf the ies f etiquette th t tend t be ess ig us nd e situ ti n . S e c nside etiquette si p e neg tive ethics, i.e., whe e c n ne ev de n unc f t b e t uth with ut d ing w ng? ne n t b e dv c te f this view is Judith tin (" iss nne s"). cc ding t this view, ethics is e su y f c n sense s ci decisi ns.
- P ctices in bit ti n nd w, e.g., the c i th t ethics itse f is tte f b ncing " ight ve sus ight", i.e., putting p i ities n tw things th t e b th ight, but th t ust be t ded ff c efu y in e ch situ ti n.
- bse ved ch ices de by din y pe p e, with ut expe t id dvice, wh v te, buy, nd decide wh t is w th v uing. This is j c nce n f s ci gy, p itic science, nd ec n ics.< ef>H y Gun t , Ethic Issues in Cybe sp ce nd IT S ciety, Sy p siu n Whithe The ge f Unce t inty, PU Univ., ese chg te.net/pub ic ti n/254440840_Ethic _Issues_in_Cybe sp ce_ nd_IT_S ciety p pe , J n. 2003</ ef>
See s
- ity
- Integ ity
- pp ied ethics
- xi gic ethics
- C nte p y ethics
- C p te s ci esp nsibi ity
- Dec ti n f Genev
- Dec ti n f He sinki
- Deductive e s ning
- Dh
- Effective t uis
- Envi n ent ethics
- Ethic ve ent
- Ethics in e igi n
- Ethics p pe
- Fe inist ethics
- Inte n is nd exte n is
- Hu nis
- Index f ethics tic es— ph betic ist f ethics- e ted tic es
- Neu ethics
- ut ine f ethics— ist f ethics- e ted tic es, nged by sub-t pic
- P ctic phi s phy
- Science f ity
- Secu ethics
- Sexu ethics
- The y f justific ti n
- T i ethics
N tes
efe ences
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